A PPT covering important info from CBSE Class 7 Geography Textbook

1. GEOGRAPHY
7th Class
1

2. 2
CHAPTER -1
ENVIRONMENT
• ENVIRONMENT : Place, people, things and nature that surround
any living organism.
• It is a combination of natural and human made phenomena.

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NATURAL
ENVIRONMENT
• Land, water, air, plants
and animals comprise
the natural
environment.
• Lithosphere,
Hydrosphere,
Atmosphere, Biosphere
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
• Human beings interact
with the environment
and modify it according
to their need.
• Early humans adapted
themselves to the
natural surroundings

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CHAPTER -2
INSIDE OUR EARTH
Earth is made up of several concentric layers
• Uppermost layer is crust.
• Beneath the crust is Mantle.
• Innermost layer is Core.

5. 5CRUST
• Thinnest of all the layers.
• It is about 35 km on the continental masses & 5 km on the ocean floors.
• continental mass mainly consists of silica & alumina. It is thus called sial (si-silica & al-alumina).
• Oceanic crust mainly consists of silica & magnesium; it is thus called sima (si-silica & ma-magnesium)
MANTLE
• Beneath the crust
• Extends up to a depth of 2900 km below the crust.
CORE
• Radius of about 3500 km.
• Mainly made up of nickel and iron.
• Called nife (ni – nickel and fe – ferrous i.e. iron).
• The central core has very high temperature and pressure.

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ROCKS AND MINERALS
• Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the earth’s crust is called a rock.
• There are 3 major types of rocks:
• Igneous rocks
• Sedimentary rocks
• Metamorphic rocks.
IGNEOUS ROCKS:
• Molten magma cools & becomes solid Igneous rocks.
• Called primary rocks
• There are 2 types of igneous rocks: intrusive rocks and extrusive rocks.
1) EXTRUSIVE ROCKS
• Molten lava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools down and becomes solid.
• Very fine grained structure.
• Example :Basalt, The Deccan plateau is made up of basalt rocks.
2) INTRUSIVE ROCKS
• Molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’s crust.
• Since they cool down slowly they form large grains.
• Example: Granite

7. 7SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Rocks roll down, crack, and hit each other & are broken down into small fragments called sediments.
• They are transported and deposited by wind, water, etc. & compressed and hardened to form layers of
sedimentary rocks.
• Example : Sandstone is made from grains of sand.
• May also contain fossils.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic
rocks under great heat and pressure
• Example: clay changes into slate and limestone into marble

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ROCK CYCLE
Magma cools down &
forms Igneous rocks
Roll down, crack, and hit each
other and are broken
compressed and hardened
under great
heat and
pressure
under Extreme heat
and pressure
Note: DiagrammaticalRepresentation of theoryof
above slides

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MINERALS
• Rocks are made up of different minerals.
• Naturally occurring substances
• Have certain physical properties and definite chemical composition.
• Minerals are very important to humankind.
• Some are used as fuels.
• Example: coal, natural gas and petroleum.

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CHAPTER -3
OUR CHANGING EARTH
• Lithospheric plates move around very slowly – just a few millimeters
each year.
• This is because of the movement of the molten magma inside the
earth.
• The movement of these plates causes changes on the surface of the
earth

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Note:Veryimportantslide****

12. 12The earth movements are divided on the basis of the forces which cause them.
• Forces which act in the interior of the earth are called as Endogenic forces
• Forces that work on the surface of the earth are called as Exogenic forces
EARTHQUAKES
• Lithospheric plates move, the surface of the earth vibrates.
• They can travel all round the earth. These vibrations are called
earthquakes.
• Focus : Place in the crust where the movement starts .
• Epicentre :Place on the surface above the focus.
• Vibrations travel outwards from the epicentre as waves.
• Greatest damage is usually closest to the epicentre
• Strength of the earthquake decreases away from the centre.
• Example: A massive earthquake measuring 6.9 on Richter scale hit
Bhuj Town on 26th January 2001.

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The landscape is being continuously worn away by two processes.
• Weathering : Breaking up of the rocks on the earth’s surface.
• Erosion : Wearing away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind and ice.
WORK OF A RIVER:
• The running water in the river erodes the landscape.
• Waterfall : River tumbles at steep angle over very hard rocks or down a steep valley side
• Meanders : River enters the plain, twists and turns forming largebends.
• Ox-bow lake : Due to continuous erosion and deposition the meander loop
cuts off from the river and forms a cut-off lake.
• Floodplain : Flat fertile land.
• Levees : Raised banks
• As the river approaches the sea, the speed of water decreases and river
begins to break up into a number of streams called distributaries.
• Each distributary forms its own mouth.
• Delta : collection of sediments from all the mouths

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WORK OF SEA WAVES:
• The erosion and deposition gives rise to coastal landforms.
• Sea caves : Waves continuously strike rocks (Cracks develop), Hollow caves are formed on the rocks.
• Sea arches : Cavities become bigger ,only the roof of the caves remain.
• Stacks : Erosion breaks the roof and only walls are left.
• Sea cliff : Steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above sea water.
• Beaches : Sea waves deposit sediments along the shores
WORK OF ICE
• Glaciers carve out deep hollows.
• Glacial moraines : Material carried by glacier such as rocks big and small, sand and silt gets deposited.
WORK OF WIND
• In deserts you can see rocks in the shape of a mushroom, commonly called mushroom rocks.
• Winds erode the lower section of the rock more than the upper part.
• Loess : Very fine and light grains of sand is carried by wind over very long distances. Such sand is deposited in
large areas.
• Large deposits of loess is in China.

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CHAPTER -4
AIR
• Plants need nitrogen for their survival.
• They can not take nitrogen directly from the
air.
• Bacteria, that live in the soil and roots of some
plants, take nitrogen from the air and change
its form so that plants can use it.

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TROPORSPHERE:
• Most important layer of the atmosphere.
• Its average height is 13 km.
• The air we breathe exists here.
• Weather phenomena like rainfall, fog and hailstorm occur in this layer.
STRATOSPHERE
• It extends up to a height of 50 km.
• Almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon
• Ideal for flying aeroplanes.
• Contains a layer of ozone gas.
MESOSPHERE
• It extends up to the height of 80 km.
• Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from the space.
THERMOSPHERE
• Temperature rises very rapidly with increasing height.
• Ionosphere is a part of this
• It extends between 80-400 km.
• Helps in radio transmission.
• Radio waves transmitted from earth are reflected back by this layer.
EXOSPHERE:
• Very thin air.
• Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the space from here.
STRUCTURE OF THE
ATMOSPHERE

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TEMPERATURE
• An important factor that influences the distribution of temperature is INSOLATION.
• Insolation is the incoming solar energy intercepted by the earth.
• The amount of insolation decreases from the equator towards the poles.
• The standard unit of measuring temperature is degree Celsius.
• It was invented by Anders Celsius.
AIR PRESSURE
• Highest at sea level and decreases with height.
• Horizontally influenced by temperature of air at a given place.
• High Temperature Air gets heated & rises low-pressure area
• Low pressure is associated with cloudy skies and wet weather.
• Lower temperature Air is cold &heavy High pressure area.
• High pressure is associated with clear and sunny skies.
• Air always moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.

19. 19WIND : Movement of air from high pressure area to low pressure areas
Winds can be broadly divided into three types.
1. Permanent winds
• The trade winds, westerlies and easterlies
• Blow constantly throughout the year in a particular direction.
2. Seasonal winds
• These winds change their direction in different seasons.
• Example :
• Monsoons in India.
3. Local winds
• Blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area.
• Example :
• Land & sea breeze.
• Hot and dry local wind of northern planes of India. It is called loo.

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MOISTURE
• Moisture in the air at any time, is known as humidity.
• When the air is full of water vapour we call it a humid day.
• As the air gets warmer, its capacity to hold the water vapour increases
and so it becomes more and more humid.
• Precipitation that comes down to the earth in liquid form is called rain.
On the basis of mechanism, there are 3 types of rainfall:
Convectional rainfall
Orographic rainfall
Cyclonic rainfall

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CHAPTER -5
WATER
• Earth is like a terrarium.
• Terrarium: It is an artificial enclosure for keeping
small house plants.

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WATER CYCLE
DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
BODIES
Note:Veryimportantslide****

23. 23OCEAN CIRCULATION
Movements that occur in oceans can be categorized as: waves, tides and currents.
WAVES
• Water on the surface of the ocean rises and falls alternately
• During a storm, the winds blowing at very high speed form huge waves.
• An earthquake, a volcanic eruption or underwater landslides can shift large amounts of ocean water.
• As a result a huge tidal wave called tsunami, that may be as high as 15m, is formed.
• Largest tsunami was 150m high. These waves travel at a speed of more than 700 kmph.
• Indira point in the Andaman and Nicobar islands got submerged after the tsunami on 26th Dec,2004.
OCEAN CURRENTS
• Streams of water flowing constantly on the ocean surface in definite
directions.
• May be warm or cold
• Influence the temperature conditions of the area

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• Warm ocean currents originate near the equator & move towards the poles.
• Warm currents bring about warm temperature over land surface.
• Example : Gulf Stream
• Cold currents carry water from polar (higher latitudes) to tropical (lower latitudes).
• Example : Labrador Ocean current
NOTE:
• Areas where the warm and cold currents meet provide the best fishing grounds of the world.
• These are foggy , making it difficult for navigation
• Example : Seas around Japan and the eastern coast of North America
TIDES
• Rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice in a day.
• High tide : Water cover much of the shore by rising to its highest level.
• Low tide : Water falls to its lowest level and recedes from the shore.
• Strong gravitational pull exerted by SUN & MOON on the earth’s surface causes tides.

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Spring tides
• During the full moon and new moon days.
• Sun, Moon & Earth are in same line and tides are highest.
• Help in navigation & fishing(due to high tides) .
• Helps the ships to arrive at the harbour more easily
Neap tides
• Moon is in its first and last quarter
• Ocean waters get drawn in diagonally opposite directions by the
gravitational pull of sun and earth resulting in low tides.
• Help in electricity generation.
Water of the earth closer to the moon gets pulled under the influence of the moon’s
gravitational force and causes high tide.

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CHAPTER -6
NATURAL VEGETAION &
WILDLIFE
• Growth of vegetation depends on temperature and moisture.
• It also depends on factors like slope and thickness of soil.

27. 27Natural vegetation is generally classified in to 3 broad categories as follows:
Forests:
• Grow where temperature and rainfall are plentiful .
Grasslands:
• Grow in the region of moderate rain.
Shrubs:
• Thorny shrubs and scrubs grow in the dry region
FORESTS
TROPICAL RAIN FOREST
• Occur in the areas which receive heavy rainfall.
• Highly dense that sunlight doesn’t reach the ground.
• Many species of trees are found in these forests, which shed their leaves at different times of the year.
• Therefore, they always appear green and are called evergreen forest .
• Important trees found in these forests are mahogany, ebony and rosewood.
• Occur in the regions near the equator and close to the tropics.

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TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FORESTS
• Also called monsoon forests.
• They are less dense.
• They shed their leaves at dry Season to conserve water.
• Important trees of these forests are sal, teak, peepal, neem and shisham.
• Tigers, lions, elephants, langoors and monkeys are commonly found animals.
• They are found in parts of India, northern Australia and in central America
TEMPERATE EVERGREEN FORESTS
• Located in the mid latitudinal coastal region & eastern margin of the continents.
• In south east USA, South China and in South East Brazil.
• They comprise both hard and soft wood trees like oak,pine, eucalyptus, etc.
TEMPERATE DECIDOUS FORESTS
• Higher latitudes,
• Found in north eastern part of USA, China, New Zealand, Chile and also in coastal regions of Western Europe.
• They shed their leaves in the dry season.
• The common trees are oak, ash, beech, etc.
• Animals like Deer, foxes, wolves & Birds like pheasants, monals are commonly found.

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MEDITERRANEAN VEGETATION
• West and south west margins of the continents
• Found in areas around the Mediterranean sea in Europe, Africa and Asia
• Marked for hot dry summers and mild rainy winters.
• Citrus fruits such as oranges, figs, olives and grapes are commonly
• There isn’t much wildlife here.
CONIFEROUS FORESTS
• Higher latitudes (50° – 70°) of Northern hemisphere
• Also called as Taiga.
• Seen in the higher altitudes.
• They are tall, softwood evergreen trees.
• The woods of these trees are very useful for making pulp.
• Chir, pine, cedar are the important variety of trees in these forests.
• Silver fox, mink, polar bear are the common animals found here.

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GRASSLANDS
TROPICAL GRASSLANDS
• Occur on either side of the equator and extend till the tropics
• Grows in the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall.
• Grass can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 m height.
• Example : Savannah grasslands of Africa
• Elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards are commonly found
TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
• Found in mid latitudinal zones and in interior part of the continents.
• Grass here is short and nutritious.
• Wild buffaloes, bisons, antilopes are commonly found.
THORNY BUSHES
• Found in dry desert like regions, generally western margins of continents.
• Vegetation cover is scarce here because of scanty rain and scorching heat.
TUNDRA VEGETATION
• Found in the polar areas of Europe, Asia and North America.
• Only mosses, lichens and very small shrubs are found here during the very short summer
• Seal,walruses, musk-oxen, Arctic owl, Polar bear and snow foxes are commonly found

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CHAPTER -7
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT-
SETTLEMENT, TRANSPORT,
COMMUNICATION
• SETTLEMENTS are places where people build their homes.
• TEMPORARY SETTLEMENTS : Settlements for a short time
• People living in deep forests, hot & cold deserts and mountains
• They practice hunting, gathering and transhumance.
• PERMANENT SETTLEMENTS : Settlements for a long time

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RURAL SETTLEMENTS
• Villages
• People engage in activities like agriculture, fishing, forestry, crafts work & trading etc.
• Rural settlements can be compact or scattered.
• A compact settlement is a closely built area of dwellings, wherever flat land is available
• A scattered settlement dwellings are spaced over an extensive area.
• Mostly found in hilly tracts, thick forests, and regions of extreme climate
URBAN SETTLEMENTS
• Towns and cities
• People engage in manufacturing,trading, and services.
TRANSPORT
India- Donkeys, mules, bullocks and camels
Andes Mountains of South America- llamas
Tibet- Yaks
In olden days

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ROADWAYS
• Especially for short distances are roads.
• They can be metalled (pucca) and unmetalled (kutcha)
• Plains have a dense network of roads.
• Manali-Leh highway in Himlayan Mountains is one of highest roadways in world.
RAILWAYS
• Carry heavy goods and people over long distances quickly and cheaply.
• Invention of Steam engine and Industrial Revolution helped in speedy development of rail transport.
• Indian railway network is largest in Asia.
WATERWAYS
• cheapest for carrying heavy and bulky goods over long distances.
• Mainly of two types – inland waterways and sea routes.
Navigable rivers and lakes used for transporting merchandise and goods from one country to another.
Routes are connected with the ports.
AIRWAYS
• Fastest way of transport developed in the early twentieth century

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Note:
Notveryimportant

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CHAPTER -8
TROPICAL AND SUB TROPICAL
REGION
• Tropical region lies very close to the equator; between 10°N and 10°S.
• It is referred to as the equatorial region.
• The river Amazon flows through this region.
• It flows from mountains to west and reaches Atlantic Ocean to east.
• River basin drains portions of Brazil, parts of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador,
Columbia and a small part of Venezuela.

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RAINFORESTS
• Rains heavily in this region, thick forests grow
• Leaves and branches does not allow the sunlight to reach ground.
• Orchids, bromeliads grow as plant parasites.
• The rainforest is rich in fauna.
• Animals like monkeys, sloth and ant-eating tapirs are found here
• Various species of reptiles and snakes also thrive in these jungles. Crocodiles,
Anaconda and boa constrictor are some of the species.
• Besides, the basin is home to thousands of species of insects.
• Several species of fishes including flesh eating Piranha fish is also found in the
river.
• Birds such as toucans, humming birds, bird of paradise with their brilliantly
coloured plumage, oversized bills for eating make them different from birds we
commonly see in India.
• Birds also make loud sounds in the forests.

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PEOPLE OF THE RAINFORESTS
• People grow most of their food in small areas after clearing some trees in the forest.
• They mainly grow tapioca, pineapple and sweet potato.
• They practice “slash and burn agriculture”.
• The staple food is manioc, also known as cassava that grows under the ground.
• They also eat queen ants and egg sacs.
• Cash crops like coffee, maize and cocoa are also grown.
• The rainforests provide a lot of wood for the houses.
• Some families live in thatched houses shaped like beehives.
• There are other large apartment-like houses called “Maloca” with steeply slanting roof.
• In the older days the heart of the forest, could be reached only by navigating the river.
• In 1970 the Trans Amazon highway made all parts of the rainforest accessible.
CLIMATE
• Hot and wet climate throughout the year.
• Both day and nights are almost equally hot and humid.
• It rains almost everyday.
• Day temperatures are high with very high humidity.
• Night temperature are low but the humidity remains high.

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LIFE IN THE GANGA-BRAHMAPUTRA BASIN
• Basin lies in sub-tropical region that is situated between 10°N to 30°N latitudes.
• Tributaries of River Ganga (Ghaghra, Son, Chambal, Gandak, Kosi) & tributaries of
Brahmaputra drain it
• Area is dominated by monsoon climate (Rains from mid-June to mid-September).
• Summers are hot and winters cool.
• varied topography.
• Density of population of plains is very high & Mountains is low.
• Main crop - paddy
• Wheat, maize, sorghum, gram and millets are other crops that are grown.
• Cash crops - sugarcane and jute .
• Banana plantations are seen in some areas of the plain.
• West Bengal and Assam - TEA.
• Bihar and Assam - Silk.
• In mountains and hills they have step Farming.

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• Plain tropical deciduous trees grow, along with teak, sal and peepal.
• Brahmaputra plain - Thick bamboo groves
• Delta area -Mangrove forests.
• Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh -coniferous trees like pine, deodar and fir can be seen
because the climate is cool and the slopes are steep.
• Elephants, tigers, deer and monkeys are common.
• Brahmaputra plain -one-horned rhinoceros.
• Delta area - Bengal tiger, crocodiles and alligator are found.
• Varieties of the fish are the rohu, catla and hilsa.
• Fish and rice is the staple diet of the people living in the area.
NOTE : Thischapterhaslotof info,memorizeasmuchasyou can

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CHAPTER -9
TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
GRASSLANDS
Region where grasses form the dominant type of plant life.
• Types of plants that grow here depend on climate and soil
• Based on climate world’s grasslands are divided into 2 broad categories:
• Those that occur in the temperate region
• Those that occur in the tropical regions.

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PRAIRIES
• Temperate grasslands of North America
• It is a region of flat, gently sloping or hilly land.
• For the most part, prairies are treeless
• But, near the low lying plains, woodlands can be found.
• Tall grass, up to 2m high.
• Bound by Rocky Mountains in West and Great Lakes in East.
• Prairies cover parts of United States of America and Canada.
• In USA, drained by tributaries of Mississippi
• In Canada, drained by tributaries of Saskatchewan Rivers.
CLIMATE
• Continental type with extreme temperatures.
• Summers are warm with temperatures of around 20°C,
• Winter -20°C has been recorded in Winnipeg, Canada.
• The annual rainfall is moderate and is ideal for the growth of grass.
• Due to the absence of the north-south barrier, a local wind “Chinook” blows here.

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FLORA AND FAUNA
• Where water is available, trees such as willows, alders and poplars grow.
• Places that receive rainfall of over 50 cm, are suitable for farming as the soil is fertile.
• Major crop of this area is maize, other crops including potatoes, soybean, cotton and alfa-alfa is also grown.
• Areas where rainfall is very little or unreliable, grasses are short and sparse.
• These areas are suitable for cattle rearing.
• Large cattle farms called ranches are looked after by sturdy men called cowboys
• Bison or American buffalo is the most important animal of this region
• It nearly got extinct due to its indiscriminate hunting and is now a protected species.
• The other animals found in this region are rabbits, coyotes, gophers and Prairie dog.
PEOPLE
• People of this region are very hardworking.
• Scientific methods of cultivation and use of tractors, harvesters and combines
• Prairies are also known as the “Granaries of the world,”
• Dairy farming is another major industry.
• Dairy belt extends from Great Lakes to Atlantic Coast in east.
• Large mineral deposits particularly coal and iron.
• Good network of roads, railways and canals have made it the most industrialised region in the world.

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VELDS
• Temperate grasslands of South Africa
• Rolling plateaus with varying heights ranging from 600 m to 1100 m.
• Bound by Drakensburg Mountains on east & Kalahari desert on west
• Northeastern part, “high velds” are located (height of more than 1600 m).
• The tributaries of rivers Orange and Limpopo drain the region.
• Lie in Southern hemisphere.
CLIMATE
• Mild climate due to the influence of the Indian Ocean.
• Winters are cold and dry & Summers are short and warm.
• Temperatures vary between 5°C and 10°C
• July is the coldest month.
• Johannesburg records about 20°C temperature in the summer
• Receive rainfall mainly in the summer months from November to February.
• Because of the warm ocean currents that wash the shores of the velds.
• If the rainfall is scanty in the winter months from June till August, drought may occur.

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FLORA AND FAUNA
• Vegetation cover is sparse.
• Red grass grows in bush velds.
• In the high velds - acacia and maroola .
• Animals of the velds are primarily lions, leopards, cheetah and kudu
PEOPLE
• Cattle rearing and mining.
• Soils are not very fertile in the velds
• Main crops are maize, wheat, barley, oats and potato.
• Cash crops -tobacco, sugarcane and cotton
• Sheep rearing is the most important occupation of the people. Merino sheep is a popular species
• Dairy farming is the next important occupation.
• Have rich reserve of minerals.
• Iron and steel industry has developed where coal and iron are present.
• Gold and diamond mining are major occupations.
• Johannesburg is known for being the gold capital of the world*****.
• Kimberley is famous for its diamond mines******
• Mining of diamond and gold in South Africa led to the establishment of trade ties with Britain and gradually South
Africa became a British Colony.
• This mineral rich area has a well-developed network of transport.

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CHAPTER -10
LIFE IN DESERTS
• Characterised by low rainfall, scanty vegetation and extreme
temperatures.
• Depending on the temperatures
• Hot deserts
• Cold deserts.

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HOT DESERT – SAHARA
• World’s largest desert.
• Area =8.54 million sq. km.
• Touches eleven countries. These are Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan, Tunisia and
Western Sahara.
• Besides the vast stretches of sands, that Sahara desert is covered with, gravel plains and elevated plateaus with bare
rocky surface.
• These rocky surfaces may be more than 2500m high at some places
Climate
• scorching hot and parch dry.
• Has a short rainy season.
• Sky is cloudless and clear.
• Moisture evaporates faster than it accumulates.
• Temperatures during the day may soar as high as 50°C, heating up
the sand and the bare rocks, which in turn radiates heat making
everything around hot.
• The nights may be freezing cold with temperatures nearing zero
degrees.

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Flora and Fauna
• Vegetation -cactus, date palms and acacia.
• There are oasis – green islands with date palms surrounding them.
• Camels, hyenas, jackals, foxes, scorpions, many varieties of snakes and lizards are prominent animals
People
• Bedouins and Tuaregs. These groups are nomadic tribes rearing livestock
• These animals provide them with milk, hides.
• They wear heavy robes as protection against dust storms and hot winds.
• Oasis in the Sahara and Nile Valley in Egypt supports settled population. Since water is
available, the people grow date palms.
• Crops such as rice, wheat, barley and beans are also grown.
• Egyptian cotton, famous worldwide is grown in Egypt*****
• The discovery of oil – a product in great demand throughout the world, in Algeria, Libya
and Egypt is constantly transforming the Sahara desert******
• Other minerals of importance that are found in the area include iron, phosphorus,
manganese and uranium.
• Tuaregs are seen acting as guides to foreign tourists.

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COLD DESERT - LADAKH
• Ladakh is a cold desert lying in the Great Himalayas, on the eastern side of J &K.
• Karakoram Range in the north and the Zanskar mountains in the south enclose it.
• Several rivers flow, Indus being the most important. Rivers form deep valleys and gorges.
• Several glaciers are found in Ladakh,
• Example : Gangri glacier.
• Altitude in Ladakh varies from about 3000m in Kargil to more than 8,000m in Karakoram.
CLIMATE
• Due to its high altitude, the climate is extremely cold and dry.
• Air at this altitude is so thin that the heat of the sun can be felt intensely.
• Day temperatures in summer are just above zero degree
• Night temperatures well below –30°C.
• As it lies in the rain shadow of the Himalayas, there is little rainfall, as low as 10 cm every year.

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Flora and Fauna
• Due to high aridity, the vegetation is sparse.
• Groves of willows and poplars are seen in the valleys.
• During the summers, fruit trees such as apples, apricots and walnuts bloom.
• Birds in Ladakh. Robins, redstarts, Tibetan snowcock, raven and hoopoe.
• Some are migratory birds
• Animals of Ladakh are wild goats, wild sheep, yak and special kinds of dogs.
• Animals are reared to provide for the milk, meat and hides.
• Yak’s milk is used to make cheese and butter.
• Hair of sheep and goat is used to make woollens.
People
• Ladakh and the inhabitants of Tibet and Central Asia resemble each other***
• The people here are either Muslims or Buddhists.
• In fact several Buddhists monasteries dot the Ladakhi landscape with their traditional ‘gompas’.
• Some famous monasteries are Hemis, Thiksey, Shey and Lamayuru.
• In summer season the people are busy cultivating barley, potatoes, peas, beans and turnip.
• Climate in winter months is so harsh that people keep themselves engaged in festivities and ceremonies.
• Leh, the capital of Ladakh .
• National Highway 1A connects Leh to Kashmir Valley through the Zoji la Pass******

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NOTE:
LAST 3 CHAPTERS HAVE A HUGE DATA WHICH
NEEDS TO BE MEMORIZED
MEMORIZE AS MUCH AS YOU CAN