This document provides information about various types of scales used to measure attitudes and behaviors, including semantic differential scales, summated rating scales, anecdotal records, and critical incident technique. It defines each scale and discusses their characteristics, purposes, advantages, and disadvantages. For semantic differential scales, it describes how they measure the psychological meanings of objects using bipolar rating scales. For summated rating scales, it outlines the key characteristics of multiple items measured on a quantitative continuum. Anecdotal records are described as short, objective records of important behavioral incidents. Finally, critical incident technique involves writing descriptions of meaningful life events to facilitate reflection.
4. Learning Objectives
At the end of lecture students will be able to
understandable:
Semantic Differential Scale
Summated Rating Scale
Anecdotal Record
Attitude Scales Measurements
Direction Degree Intensity
Critical Incident Technique
6. Semantic differential scale or the S.D. scale developed
by Charles E. Osgood, G.J. Suci and P
.H. Tannenbaum
(1957), is an attempt to measure the psychological
meanings of an object to an individual.
This scale is based on the presumption that an object
can have different dimensions of connotative meanings
which can be located in multidimensional property
space, or what can be called the semantic space in the
context of S.D. scale.
7. This scaling consists of a set of
bipolar rating scales, usually of 7
points, by which one or more
respondents rate one or more
concepts on each scale item.
10. Introduction
The summated rating scale is one of the most
frequently used tools in the social sciences. Its
invention is attributed to Rensis Likert (1932), who
described this technique for the assessment of
attitudes.
These scales are widely used across the social
sciences to measure not only attitudes, but opinions,
personalities, and descriptions of people's lives and
environments as well.
11. Scales presently exist that measure emotional
states (e.g., anger, anxiety, and depression),
personal needs (e.g., achievement, autonomy, and
power), personality (e.g., locus of control and
introversion), and description of jobs (e.g., role
ambiguity and workload).
These are but a few of the hundreds of variables for
which scales have been developed. For many
variables several scales exist, some of which were
created for specialized purposes.
12. There are four characteristics that make a scale a
summated rating scale. First, a scale must contain
multiple items. The use of summated in the name implies
that multiple items will be combined or summed.
Second, each individual item must measure something
that has an underlying, quantitative measurement
continuum. In other words, it measures a property of
something that can vary quantitatively rather than
qualitatively. An attitude, for example, can vary from
being very favorable.
13. Third, each item has no "right" answer, which
makes the summated rating scale different from a
multiple-choice test. Thus summated rating scales
cannot be used to test for knowledge or ability.
Finally, each item in a scale is a statement, and
respondents are asked to give ratings about each
statement. This involves asking subjects to
indicate which of several response choices best
reflects their response to the item. Most
summated rating scales offer between four and
seven response choices.
14. Table 1.1 contains the Work Locus of Control Scale (WLCS; Spector,
1988) as an example of a summated rating scale.
The WLCS is a 16 item, 6 response choice, agreement scale.
There are three things to note about the scale.
First, at the top is the key containing the six response choices,
ordered from greatest disagreement to greatest agreement. The
greatest disagreement, disagree very much, is given the lowest
value of 1. The greatest agreement, agree very much, is given the
highest value of 6.
Below the key are the statements or item stems for which
respondents will indicate their level of agreement.
To the right of each stem are all six possible responses.
Respondents circle one response for each item.
18. An anecdotal record is an observation
that is written like a short story. They are
descriptions of incidents or events that
are important to the person observing.
Anecdotal records are short, objective
and as accurate as possible
19. Definition
Anecdotal records is a record of some
significant item of conduct, a record of an
episode in the life of students, a word
picture of the student in action, a word
snapshot at the moment of the incident,
any narration of events in which may be
significant about his personality. Randall.
20. Meaning
Informal device used by the teacher to
record behavior of students as
observed by him from time to time.
It provides a lasting record of behavior
which may be useful later in
contributing to a judgment about a
student.
21. Characteristics Of Anecdotal
Records
Anecdotal records must possess certain
characteristics as given below-
They should contain a factual descriptions of what
happened, when it happened, and under what
circumstances the behavior occurred.
The interpretations and recommended action should
be noted separately from the description.
Each anecdotal record should contain a record of a
single incident.
22. Cont.
The incident recorded should be that is
considered to be significant to the students
growth and development of example.
Simple reports of behavior
Result of direct observation.
Accurate and specific
Gives context of child's behavior Records
typical or unusual behaviors
23.
24. Purpose
To furnish the multiplicity of evidence needed for
good cumulative record.
To substitute for vague generalizations about
students specific exact description of behavior.
To stimulate teachers to look for information i.e.
pertinent in helping each student realize good self-
adjustment.
To understand individual’s basic personality pattern
and his reactions in different situations.
25. Cont.
The teacher is able to understand her pupil in a
realistic manner.
It provides an opportunity for healthy pupil- teacher
relationship.
It can be maintained in the areas of behavior that
cannot be evaluated by other systematic method.
Helps the students to improve their behavior, as it is a
direct feedback of an entire observed incident, the
student can analyze his behavior better.
Can be used by students for self-appraisal and peer
assessment.
26. Advantages Of Anecdotal
Records
Supplements and validates of other
structured instruments.
Provision of insight into total behavioral
incidents.
Needs no special training.
Use of formative feedback.
27. Cont.
Economical and easy to develop.
Open ended and can catch unexpected
events.
Can select behaviors' or events of
interest and ignore others, or can sample
a wide range of behaviors' (different
times, environments and people).
28. Disadvantages Of Anecdotal
Records
If carelessly recorded, the purpose will not be
fulfilled.
Only records events of interest to the person
doing the observing.
Quality of the record depends on the memory
of the person doing the observing.
Incidents can be taken out of context.
30. Uses Of Anecdotal Records
Record unusual events, such as accidents.
Record children's behavior, skills and interests for planning
purposes.
Record how an individual is progressing in a specific area of
development.
It provides a means of communication between the members of
the health care team and facilitates coordinated planning and
continuity of care. It acts as a medium for data exchange between
the health care team.
Clear, complete, accurate and factual documentation provides a
reliable, permanent record of patient care.
33. The word attitude has been derived from Latin word
‘Aptus’. Which means ability.
Attitude is an established way of thinking or feeling
reflected in a person’s behavior towards others.
It is a tendency to respond positively or negatively
towards a certain idea, object, person or situation.
In influences a person’s choices of action.
It is what a person believes in or what a person feels.
34. It has three components:-
Affective component:- The feelings or emotions
towards objects. Ex- I am scared of spiders.
Behavioral component:- the way the attitude we have
influences how we act or behave. Ex- I will avoid
and scream if i see one.
Cognitive component:- This involves a person’s belief /
/ knowledge about an attitude object. Ex- I believe
spiders are dangerous. This model is also known as
model of attitude.
35. Scale
The word ‘scale’ come from the Latin word
scala, meaning a ladder or flight of steps, a
scale represents a series of ordered steps at
fixed intervals used as a standard of
measurement.
An attitude scale is a special type of
questionnaire designed to produce scores
indicating the intensity and direction (for or
against) of a person’s feelings about an
object or event.
36. An attitude scale, is a tool prepared for
the purpose of measuring people's
attitude to an issue is called attitude
scale.
An attitude scale is designed to provide a
valid, or accurate measure of an
individual’s social attitude.
38. Direction
It is a positive or negative feeling about
something .
It is an important aspect of attitude.
Ex- I like horses. (Positive direction).
I don’t like horses (Negative direction.)
39. It describes the amount of liking or
disliking attached to an attitude.
Students may have different degrees of
liking, which can be measured from a
moderate to strong to very strong.
The idea of degree can be applied to the
negative feelings towards an object also.
40. It shows strength of feeling.
At a high degree of intensity, some given kind
of behavior is motivated.
Also the comparison of strength of one attitude
to another may determine which one becomes
the basis of action.
Ex – I am crazy about horses.
This example shows high intensity of attitude.
44. CRITICAL INCIDENT ANALYSIS RECORD
SHEET (for EU/Canada exchange
students)
Sit down at least three times during your
exchange trip and choose one critical incident
that has taken place recently and explore it in
detail. Critical incidents are brief descriptions
written by learners about meaningful events in
their lives (Brookfeld 1990). Any experience you
encounter during your exchange trip may be a
critical incident and therefore a situation you
can reflect upon. In the other words: incidents
happen but a critical incident is produced by the
way you look at a situation; a critical incident is
your interpretation of the significance of the
event. Here are some key steps for organising
you’re reflecting and writing.
45. 1 Identify the event or occurrence with as much specificity as possible - the problem to
be solved, issues involved, etc. You may not have precise ideas on this when you
start writing. Just start writing.
2 Describe the relevant details and circumstances surrounding the event so that you
and the tutor who reads your entry will understand what happened. What? When?
How? Why? Where?
3 List the people involved, describe them and their relationship to you and to each
other.
4 Describe your role in the situation - what you did, how you acted.
5 Analyse the incident. How well or badly did you understand the situation? How did
you handle it? What would you do differently the next time? Why?
6 Analyse this incident in terms of its impact on you and explain why you view it as
critical in relation to rural inequalities in health or a specific area of the Ottawa
Charter. How does it relate to your particular objective(s)? What have you learned
from the experience? How has your perspective on your own role and that of
others been changed and/or reinforced?
46. Can critical incidents method be
used in educating reflective
practitioners in nursing?
The method
Supports learners’ critical thinking and experiential
learning (Niemi 2003, Mikkonen 2005)
Helps learners’ personal (Silkelä 2001; Merikivi 2003)
and professional development (Turunen 2002)
Assists learners integration of nursing theory into
practice (Koskinen, Jokinen & Mikkonen 2007)
Improves learners’ reflection skills (Koskinen et al
2007)
