1. A PHENOMENOLOGICAL EXPLORATION OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERS'
EXPERIENCES IN TEXAS PUBLIC SCHOOL CLASSROOMS
by
Gregory Tramaine Thompson
A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of University of Phoenix
in Partial of Requirements Fulfillment for
the Degree of Doctor of Education
in Educational Leadership
University of Phoenix
2011

2. ii
© 2011 by Gregory T. Thompson
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

3. iii
A PHENOMENOLOGICAL EXPLORATION OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERS'
EXPERIENCES IN TEXAS PUBLIC SCHOOL CLASSROOMS
by
Gregory Tramaine Thompson
Month 2011
Approved:
Name, Credential, Role
Name, Credential, Role
Name, Credential, Role
Accepted and Signed:
Typed Full Name of Mentor (no credential
or role)
Date
Accepted and Signed:
Typed Full Name of Committee Member Date
Accepted and Signed:
Typed Full Name of Committee Member Date
_______________
Jeremy Moreland, Ph.D. Date
Dean, School of Advanced Studies
University of Phoenix

4. iv
Abstract
Teachers are lacking skills to manage classroom disruptions related to behavior and
discipline among at-risk students. The growing challenges of managing disruptive, violent,
emotional, and other behavioral disorders consume instructional time within the classroom
(Lassen et al., 2006). The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore the
experiences and perceptions of educational leaders (EL) in Texas public school classrooms. This
study involved interviewing 11 (K-12) educational leaders to gather data and explore educational
leaders' experiences and perceptions regarding teachers' beliefs about students and students'
sense of identity. The data was analyzed by transcribing the interviews and using the NVivo8
program to discover the important themes. The findings included seven themes. Theme 1
consisted of perceptions of educational leaders relating to behavior and discipline issues in the
classroom. Theme 2 was the amount of time educational leaders spend on behavior and
discipline issues. Theme 3 signified the solutions that educational leaders use to manage
behavior and discipline issues. Theme 4 included perceptions of professional development
training provided by school districts. Theme 5 dealt with the experiences of student removal
from the classroom to In-School Suspension (ISS). Theme 6 highlighted perceptions relative to
students' identity and behavior. Theme 7 related to how teacher perceptions compete with the
popular media. The findings might influence practices and decision-making in professional
development programs and classroom environments. Targeted professional development
programs can provide educational leaders with knowledge regarding teachers' beliefs about
behavior and discipline issues that disrupt instructional learning.

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Dedication
First, I thank God for blessing me with the strength, patience, and intellect to
complete this journey. I dedicate this doctoral degree to my loving mother, Ruthie
Thompson, who has truly been an inspiration and pushed me to do my best in school. The
support of my 110-year-old great-grandmother, Clara Davis, and my 88-year-old
grandmother, Jennie Thompson helped instill God in my life. The love and support from
late Thompson family members: Grandfather Tennessee, Uncle O’Neal, Uncle Donell,
Sr., Uncle Freddy (Nicole), Uncle Claude, Aunt Mabel, and Brandon Thompson, a
special thanks to Aunt Mamie Bluford and paternal Grandmother Annie Thomas. God
bless! I extend this dedication to the educational quality of at-risk students. I am forever
appreciative of the past and present educational leaders from my alma maters: Shelbyville
ISD-Texas, Angelina College-Texas, Peru State College-Nebraska, and University of
Phoenix, who sacrificed to make this accomplishment possible.

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Acknowledgements
I acknowledge God Almighty, my Savior Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit.
Triumph the Church and Kingdom of God in Christ and Fountain of Praise in Houston,
Texas, for the prayers and strength to complete a doctoral program in Educational
Leadership. I am grateful for my dissertation mentor, Dr. Michael Daniels, committee
members: Dr. Casey Reason and Dr. Jim Alstott. I am thankful for my advisors Alyssa
Schultz, Amber Biles, and Ronnie Perez for their continued guidance and time dedicated
to complete this long, arduous journey.
To respect the confidentiality of the participants involved in this study, I will not
use their names. It is a pleasure to thank the Superintendents, the Business Manager, the
administrative team, and the educational leaders of the school district for their
willingness to participate and the opportunity to explore their experiences for data.
To the entire Davis-Thompson family, my sisters, brothers, cousins, friends, my
nephew Tavion “Trez” Barnes, my neice Tiaja Bre’l Thompson, the Todd Spring
community, the class of 1993 Angel Lout and Montrell King, thank you for the
motivation. The Brinson family, Mrs. Pinky Atkinson, Mrs. Dazella Moore, Mr. J.W.
Cartwright, Mr. Elzie Suell, and Mr. Reggie Daniels, thank you for the valuable
experiences and believing in me. I give thanks to Tammy Williams & family, Lawrence
Hollier & family, Trina Crews Tant, and Carole Harvey McGrath.
Psalms 67:3 & 5 Let the people praise thee, O God; let all the people praise thee.

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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................1
Background of the Problem....................................................................................................................1
Problem Statement................................................................................................................................3
Purpose of the Study.............................................................................................................................4
Significance of the Study........................................................................................................................6
Significance of the Study to Educational Leadership...............................................................................7
Nature of the Study...............................................................................................................................8
Research Question...............................................................................................................................11
Theoretical Framework........................................................................................................................12
Definition of Terms..............................................................................................................................15
Assumptions .......................................................................................................................................17
Scope of the Study...............................................................................................................................17
Rationale............................................................................................................................................. 18
Limitations........................................................................................................................................... 19
Delimitations.......................................................................................................................................20
Summary............................................................................................................................................. 20
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE...........................................................................22
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE...........................................................................22
Documentation....................................................................................................................................23
Historical Overview of Education for At-risk Students...........................................................................24
Current Literature on At-risk Students..................................................................................................32
Conclusion........................................................................................................................................... 51

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Summary............................................................................................................................................. 52
CHAPTER 3: METHOD..........................................................................................................53
CHAPTER 3: METHOD..........................................................................................................53
Research Design ..................................................................................................................................53
Design Appropriateness.......................................................................................................................54
Population........................................................................................................................................... 55
Sampling.............................................................................................................................................. 56
Informed Consent................................................................................................................................58
Confidentiality.....................................................................................................................................59
Data Collection....................................................................................................................................59
Validity and Reliability.........................................................................................................................61
Data Analysis.......................................................................................................................................63
Chapter Summary................................................................................................................................64
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA...........................................65
CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA...........................................65
Participant Characteristics....................................................................................................................66
Data Collection....................................................................................................................................67
Data Analysis.......................................................................................................................................69
Pilot Study ..........................................................................................................................................73
Analysis of Each Theme........................................................................................................................73
Summary of Findings............................................................................................................................96
Chapter Summary................................................................................................................................97
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................99
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................99
Analysis of Each Theme........................................................................................................................99

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Implications for Educational Leadership.............................................................................................112
Summary of Findings..........................................................................................................................113
Suggestions for Further Research ......................................................................................................113
Recommendations for Higher Education ..........................................................................................116
Theme 4, professional development, included insights involving educational leaders being unable to
prepare for unpredictable students. The teachers felt prepared because of their experiences and years
of service; however, inexperienced teachers can learn from role-playing situations. Recommendations
for higher education are to implement applicable role-playing situations into training programs. The
responses from Theme 5, removal from classroom to ISS, can assist instructors and professors in higher
education by addressing the possibility of student removal to set expectations. Higher education
students are more mature and accountable for their behavior. Theme 6, perceptions and students'
identity, can provide instructors and professors with knowledge relating to how their mood can
improve or hinder student learning. Theme 7, teacher perception competition with popular media, may
assist higher education by using strategies such as flexible teaching methods, talk to students about
their problems or recommend them to a counselor, being a positive role model, and placing media
devices on the desk during class periods. Character building programs support behavior and discipline
issues. The results of these findings represented educational leaders' lived experiences and can help
instructors and professors because at-risk students enter higher education institutions with the same
behavior and discipline problems. ....................................................................................................116
Chapter Summary and Dissertation Summary.....................................................................................117
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................... 119
REFERENCES......................................................................................................................... 119
APPENDIX A: INFORMED CONSENT FORM..................................................................135
APPENDIX A: INFORMED CONSENT FORM..................................................................135
APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL..........................................................................136
APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL..........................................................................136
APPENDIX C: INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE.............................................................139
APPENDIX C: INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE.............................................................139
BY SIGNING THIS FORM IN INK, I ACKNOWLEDGE THAT I UNDERSTAND THE
NATURE OF THE STUDY, ANY POTENTIAL RISKS TO ME AS A PARTICIPANT,
AND THE MEANS BY WHICH MY IDENTITY WILL BE KEPT CONFIDENTIAL. MY
SIGNATURE ON THIS FORM ALSO INDICATES THAT I AM OVER THE AGE OF 18,

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I AM NOT A MEMBER OF ANY PROTECTED CATEGORY OF PARTICIPANTS
(MINOR, PREGNANT WOMAN WHEN CONSIDERED PART OF A DESIGNATED
RESEARCH GROUP OF WOMEN, PRISONER, OR COGNITIVELY IMPAIRED), AND
THAT I GIVE MY PERMISSION TO VOLUNTARILY SERVE AS A PARTICIPANT IN
THE STUDY DESCRIBED BY ____________________ IN THIS INVITATION....................140
PRINT NAME OF THE INTERVIEWEE ____________________________...............................140
APPENDIX D: DEMOGRAPHICS CHARTS......................................................................141
APPENDIX D: DEMOGRAPHICS CHARTS......................................................................141

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List of Tables
TABLE 1.................................................................................................................................... 67
POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS....................................................................................67
TABLE 2. .................................................................................................................................. 71
THEMES EMERGED FROM QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS......................................71
TABLE 3.................................................................................................................................... 76
THEME 1: PERCEPTIONS RELATING TO BEHAVIOR AND DISCIPLINE ISSUES . .76
TABLE 4.................................................................................................................................... 80
THEME 2: TIME SPENT ON BEHAVIOR AND DISCIPLINE ISSUES............................80
TABLE 5.................................................................................................................................... 82
THEME 3: SOLUTIONS TO BEHAVIOR AND DISCIPLINE ISSUES..............................82
TABLE 6.................................................................................................................................... 86
THEME 4: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT...................................................................86
TABLE 7.................................................................................................................................... 89
THEME 5: REMOVAL FROM THE CLASSROOM TO ISS................................................89
TABLE 8.................................................................................................................................... 91
THEME 6: PERCEPTIONS INFLUENCE STUDENTS' IDENTITY..................................91
TABLE 9.................................................................................................................................... 95
THEME 7: TEACHER PERCEPTION COMPETITION WITH POPULAR MEDIA.......95

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Urban schools, particularly those among poor and racial minority youth, continue to be a
vexing problem confronting public education in the United States (Patterson, Hale, & Stressman,
2007, 2008). Public school systems are responsible for complying with No Child Left Behind
(NCLB). Although NCLB seeks to correct achievement gaps most prevalent among groups of
culturally diverse students, students with disabilities are often at an economic disadvantage
(Bowen & Rude, 2006). One of the greatest challenges that continue to face education is
accommodating students categorized as at-risk (Saddler & Staulters, 2008). Rieg (2007)
suggested that students who perform badly and students who fail school are at-risk because they
are not successful and require interventions; additionally, at-risk factors include frequent
absenteeism, retention in one or more grades, severe behavior problems, low ability, drug and
alcohol abuse, and parent’s low socio-economic status. Educational issues involving at-risk
students relate to the growing challenges of managing and redirecting disruptive, violent,
emotional, and other behavior disorders, which continue to consume instructional time within the
classroom (Lassen, Steele, & Sailor, 2006).
Chapter 1 provides an overview of this study. In Chapter 1, an exploration of educational
leaders' experiences and perceptions are addressed. The problem statement, purpose, and
significance of the study, along with the research questions and the theoretical framework for the
study are introduced. In addition, the nature of the study, the research question, theoretical
framework, limitations, and delimitations are explained.
Background of the Problem
The setting for this study was a rural Texas public school. Cinco de Mayo school was the

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pseudonym used for this study for anonymity purposes. Responsibilities of public school
administrators at Cinco de Mayo involve student populations such as at-risk students. Because
the NCLB laws relate to inclusion and mainstreaming, at-risk students are a major concern in
many educational settings. In a survey of 805 members of the American Federation of Teachers
Union, 17% of the members reported that they lost four hours or more teaching time each week
because of disruptive students, and another 19% of the members reported that they lost two or
three hours each week (Finn, Fish, & Scott, as cited in Walker, Ramsey, & Gresham, 2003,
2004). Disruptive students often are referred to as at-risk students who exhibit behavior that
interferes with instruction and learning.
The term at-risk, when used with respect to a child, youth, or student, means a school
aged individual who is at-risk of academic failure, has a drug or alcohol problem, is pregnant or
is a parent, and an individual who has encountered a juvenile justice system in the past. An at-
risk child, youth, or student has been described as at least one year behind the expected grade
level for the age of the individual, limited English proficiency, a gang member, has dropped out
of school in the past, or has a high absenteeism rate at school (Texas Education Agency, 2010).
Classroom management supports teachers' ability to intervene disruptive behaviors, which can
lead to losing instruction time and limited learning opportunities. Classroom management skills
support at-risk students.
At-risk students who display inappropriate behavior at Cinco de Mayo are disciplined by
confinement to isolated rooms instructed by paraprofessionals or educational aides who may not
meet state teaching standards because of small school budgets. In the isolated, confined rooms,
students complete worksheets, read textbooks, and test with limited teacher instruction and
facilitation. Non-certified teachers, referred to as paraprofessionals or educational aides, instruct

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and facilitate at-risk students in In-House Suspension (IHS). IHS is also referred to as In-School
Suspension (ISS). The interactions in such an environment limit and minimize involvement with
team projects. Faulkner and Cook’s (2006) study (as cited in National Middle School
Association, 2003) suggested that to promote educational quality, integration of a variety of
instructional strategies must go beyond the traditional teacher-centered approaches. In the
context of educational quality, leaders in education can make improvements in training teachers
to understand that perception has an impact on the identity and educational quality of at-risk
students in the regular classroom setting. At Cinco de Mayo, teacher training included employing
and implementing pacing guides as instruments to set academic and behavior standards. In
addition to pacing guides, teacher perceptions can be improved to shape identity development
and improve the educational quality of at-risk students.
Problem Statement
The general problem addressed in this study was that teachers are lacking skills to
manage classroom disruptions related to behavior and discipline among at-risk students. The
growing challenges of managing disruptive, violent, emotional, and other behavioral disorders
consume instructional time within the classroom (Lassen et al., 2006) and McIntosh, Horner,
Chard, and Braun (2008) asserted that behavior problems simultaneously interfere with learning.
Disruptions and interferences in the classroom often are associated with at-risk students, but the
consequences relate to each educational stakeholder.
In mainstream classrooms, children with challenging behaviors disrupt learning within
the group (Chessor, Gilbert, Perz, & Ussher, 2008). Chessor et al. also emphasized that a
challenge for teachers is to cater to multiple and sometimes conflicting needs in a classroom of
25 to 30 children. In 2007-08, 48% of Texas students were at-risk and were out-performed on

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Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) standardized testing on all subjects tested
(Comprehensive Annual Report, 2008). The Comprehensive Annual Report also stated that
between grades three and 10, the performance of at risk students declined from 75% to 37%. The
specific problem was teachers in need of better options to deal with disruptions in the
educational process related to behavior and discipline issues relating to identity development and
educational quality of at-risk students.
This qualitative study used a phenomenological research design and explored the
practices of educational leaders who experience the behavior of at-risk students daily. A
phenomenological design was most appropriate for this type of study because of the in-depth
exploration of experiences and interactions with at-risk students. This study consisted of
interviewing educational leaders employed by Cinco de Mayo public schools. This study also
provided a review of at-risk students’ TAKS scores. The results from this study may inform
educational leaders as they design professional development programs and teacher training,
which may change teacher perception, improve teacher effectiveness, and equalize educational
quality for at-risk students. According to Harrison, Lawson, and Wortley (2005), effective
professional development programs help improve teaching through collaboration and evaluation,
which help encourage teachers to identify deficiencies within various areas of professional
knowledge and skills.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore in-depth the
experiences of educational leaders in relation to behavior and discipline issues in the classroom
setting of a Texas public school. An awareness of this relationship can help educational leaders
change teacher perception and improve the educational quality and student achievement of at-

16. 5
risk students. The experiences of educational leaders as they interact with at-risk students were
the central phenomenon of this study. Phenomenological research presumed that individuals
make sense of lived experiences according to personal significance and implies that experiential,
practical and instinctive understanding is more meaningful than abstract, theoretical knowledge
(Standing, 2009). Standing also supported the use of phenomenological concepts and principles
as means of accessing, interpreting, and communicating human experiences.
Barnett (2005) stated that the use of phenomenology as a research method fulfills the aim
of gaining a greater understanding of lived experiences. The behavior of at-risk students in the
classroom provided occurrences of observable facts. Phenomenology is a branch of philosophy
and a research method that offered the opportunity to gain an understanding of the meaning of a
phenomenon. Phenomenology fits well with a study that allows participants to focus on
individuals’ lived experiences, enables a capture of human experiences, and presents the
participants’ subjective perceptions with clarity and meaning (Barnett, 2005).
Listening to educational leaders and understanding their rationale for decision-making
were significant procedures in this study. The data gathered from the interviews generated
common themes by exploring the strategies used by educational leaders. Chessor et al. (2008)
noted that although interviews are time-consuming, individual interviews enable collecting
qualitative data and yielding rich, relevant, and detailed information. Participants can be asked
about their experiences and perceptions. The questions may be used to guide the interview
discussions (Chessor et al.). Chessor et al. also reported that to maintain organization, interview
data is transcribed verbatim and thematically analyzed into dominant themes, which are coded
manually. Common themes may help educational professionals add breadth and depth to their
body of knowledge. Increased understanding from common themes will enhance management

17. 6
skills and promote the best quality of education (Barnett, 2005).
This qualitative phenomenological study involved interviews of educational leaders from
Cinco de Mayo public schools in a Texas city. Maltepe (2009) found that transcribing
interviewers and constructing research questions based on teacher’s views reflect knowledge
about qualitative data. The sample used in this study included educational leaders such as those
who manage at-risk student behavior daily. The study remained open to participants’ responses
to open-ended questions and enabled an investigation of teacher perception on the identity and
educational quality of at-risk students. Exploration from the data investigation informed the need
for change in professional development and teacher training.
Significance of the Study
This qualitative phenomenological study enabled an exploration of educational leaders’
experiences relating to behavior and discipline disruptions in the learning environment to explore
at-risk students’ educational quality. The recognition that there is a loss of instructional time due
to managing at-risk student behavior can lead to change in professional development programs.
At-risk students may benefit from highly qualified, certified teachers or paraprofessionals who
use effective approaches to improve classroom management. The insights from this study may
inform educational leaders to make curricular changes in professional development programs to
support at-risk students. This intervention strategy has the potential to provide information that
can help improve TAKS standardized test scores and increase school funding.
Through effective teacher training and professional development, at-risk students are
more likely to develop positive identities and improve educational quality. Professional
development empowers teachers and paraprofessionals and provides the necessary tools to
encourage appropriate behavior. This qualitative phenomenological study provided more

18. 7
research toward understanding the association of teacher perception and the identity
development. At-risk students can benefit from effective leadership that designs and aligns
instruction and curricular activities with their needs. The results of this research may improve
educational leadership efficiency by addressing the urgent need for curriculum adjustments,
transforming mentalities of each educational stakeholder, shaping identity development, and
promoting equal treatment in education. The results of this research study may also provide a
basis for further explorations into related concerns in public school classroom settings and
present new insights to societal issues.
Significance of the Study to Educational Leadership
According to the Harris County Department of Education (2008), the significance of this
study and its focus on at-risk youth is amplified due to the number of students considered at-risk
from low-socio-economic households. Educational leadership involves managing the behavior of
at-risk students and ensuring the parents of at risk students’ entitlement to equal treatment. Harris
County Department of Education (HCDE), which coordinates more than 100 programs for more
than 15,000 children in Harris County, dedicates equalization to educational opportunities and
advancement of public schools (Harris County Department of Education, 2008). The results of
this original research contribute to the body of knowledge about educational leaders' experiences
regarding students and students' sense of identity. HCDE is flexible and developed to respond
and serve the needs of learners of low socio-economic status, various ethnic backgrounds, and
student's educational or developmental delays (Harris County Department of Education, 2008).
Educational leadership also involves being knowledgeable about the capabilities of
departments of education to adjust curricular standards and professional development programs
to improve the educational quality of at-risk students. Harris County Department of Education

19. 8
also expressed that teaching at-risk teens require a high degree of structure, skill, and patience.
Educational leaders can integrate relevant professional development activities to inform and
empower educators with pertinent knowledge and skills that support managing at-risk behavior.
Nearly 8,000 educators benefited from specialized instruction from HCDE and the specialists
delivered the latest instructional methods in critical areas (Harris County Department of
Education, 2008).
Texas Education Agency (TEA) helps the challenges of student diversity by integrating
specialized programs (Texas Education Agency, n.d.) and informing educational leaders about
pertinent educational issues. The agency continues to respond to the changing structure of the
student population with specialized programs (e.g., Bilingual/English as Second Language
[ESL]) programs, programs targeting economically disadvantaged students. The results of this
study can positively influence educational leadership and support TEA’s mission (as stated in
Texas Education Agency, n.d.) to place more focus on the strategies and initiatives. These
initiatives such as the Texas High School Project (THSP), The Early Childhood School
Readiness Program, The Limited English Proficient Student Success Initiative (LEP-SSI), and
the Migration Education Program will be more critical over the next decade in efforts to meet the
needs of constant changing student populations.
Nature of the Study
The sample of this qualitative phenomenological study included 11 educational leaders
who manage at-risk students attending (K-12) Cinco de Mayo public schools. Specifically, eight
teachers and three administrators enabled the interviewer to listen and record most or all of the
perceptions of the educational leaders. Although perceptions may vary, this sample size of 11
was a proportional representation of understanding the perception of (K-12) educational leaders.

20. 9
This qualitative phenomenological study used interviews to gather data regarding the
teacher's beliefs shaped by their professional experience about students and students' sense of
identity. A qualitative analysis can lead to the identification of different issues related to student
practices, including teacher training, teaching ability, the school environments and policies, and
personal thoughts and feelings (Koutsoupidou, 2010). Paluck (2010) proposed that qualitative
measurement leads to a better understanding and uncovers new processes. A qualitative approach
enabled an exploratory investigation. This study was intended to help promote educational
quality by inquiring about the current professional development programs used to help teachers
manage at-risk student behavior. Qualitative methods involve a greater time investment
compared to quantitative data collection (Paluck, 2010). Through a qualitative research process,
phenomenological perspectives and experiences construct meanings (Grover, 2010). Grover also
explained that a qualitative research process assists with conflicting phenomenological
perspectives of the various parties.
Beck (2009) noted that collecting numerical, categorical, and ordinal data simplifies
comparisons between groups; however, researchers collect qualitative data from interviews,
participant observation, and archives. Field experimentation is an unrealistic method for
qualitative research projects and naturally suited for quantitative purposes (Paluck, 2010). Paluck
also stated that qualitative researchers aspire to use experimental logic for drawing inferences but
cannot use experiments. In quantitative studies there are statistical tests to critique, but in
qualitative studies there are no statistics used (Beck, 2009). Beck also mentioned that evaluation
of different instruments used to collect data accomplishes reliability and validity in quantitative
studies, but not qualitative studies. Qualitative methods of investigation explore the meanings of
behavior in the context of the study (Paluck, 2010). Paluck asserted that qualitative studies

21. 10
generate insights and contribute more to general theories of identity, leadership, political, and
social change.
According to Beck (2009), phenomenology, grounded theory, and ethnography are
various types of qualitative research. The research design for this study involved a
phenomenological design, which permitted gaining insights about classroom experiences of
educational leaders based on teachers' beliefs about students and students' sense of identity. The
goal of this phenomenological study was to explore the experiences of educational leaders who
manage at-risk students.
Koutsoupidou (2010) emphasized that qualitative studies use questions that serve as the
basis for self-reflection. The instrument used to collect data for this study included interviews
driven by open ended questions which are described further in chapter 3. The respondents were
available school leaders in a rural Texas public school. Common themes represented teachers’
thoughts regarding students and students' identity development. This study may enable curricula
adjustments better to address the needs of at-risk students, which also involves implementing
relevant professional development programs and activities.
James and Leyden (2010) defined grounded theory as a qualitative method involving a
number of techniques for analyzing qualitative data such as group cohesion and social feedback.
Grounded theory creates new theoretical rationalization. James and Leyden also identified
grounded theory as a theoretical framework for understanding the core process based on the
theory of open and closed systems. Ethnographies magnify cases, social processes, and concepts.
Ethnography involves observing, studying, and understanding what people do and say as
principles of cultural groups (Desai, 2010). Ethnography depicts cultural behaviors in particular
environments. Desai also supported that ethnographers go out into the community and explore

22. 11
what is happening in the real world without waiting for research participants. Paluck (2010)
stated that ethnographies also compare authority and political legitimacy. Three aspects of
context in ethnographic studies include time, space, and people in their natural social context
(Desai, 2010).
The decision to rely on a phenomenological approach in this study stemmed from a desire
to gather as much rich data related to the experience of the responding teaching professionals as
possible. Phenomenology provided the greatest opportunity to benefit from the first-hand
experience of educational leaders who deal with at-risk students in a daily basis. While other
methodological approaches may provide insight into the experience of working with at-risk
students generally, the emphasis on first person narrative and intentionality in the exploration of
a singular phenomenon or experience made phenomenology an ideal fit for this study.
Research Question
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study explored classroom experiences
and learning disruptions perceived by 11 Cinco de Mayo educational leaders. This study
included audio taped, in-depth interviews of educator leaders using open-ended questions to
investigate emerging themes. Buck and Cordes (2005) expressed that reflections and responses
to research questions can focus on educational experiences and teacher preparation programs to
meet the needs diverse learners. Face-to-face interviews allowed educational leaders to answer
open-ended research questions as an attempt to explore behavior and discipline problems in the
classroom. The data from the research questions added insight to the current body of knowledge
concerning the identity development and educational quality of at-risk students. Two central
research questions guided the study. The sub-questions were presented in the interview protocol
(Appendix B) to explain further the direction of the qualitative phenomenological study. The

23. 12
central research questions were as follows:
Question one
What are the perceptions of (K-12) educational leaders relating to behavior and
discipline issues in the classroom?
Question two
What are educational leaders’ experiences and perceptions regarding teachers' beliefs
about students and students' sense of identity?
Theoretical Framework
In recent years, the notion of identity has gained resonance both inside and outside the
academic world (Gandana, 2008). Research into identity was categorized in the theoretical areas
of discursive identity theory. Hall (2007) explained that the theory of discursive identity
concerns the way in which individuals perceive and define others and it serves as a strategy
better to understand their decision-making. Acknowledging the identity of at-risk students
enabled teachers to gain an in-depth understanding that promotes effective classroom
management. Students must be able to identify themselves as an important part of the learning
process and feel as if they belong in the classroom. Teachers must create a positive atmosphere
to ensure at-risk students feel comfortable. Teachers should challenge themselves to think
carefully about each student’s identity in how it relates to aspects of diversity. Hall (2007)
reported that discursive identity is about defining persons and individuals who make conscious
decisions about their actions to try to shape the views of others.
Discursive identity is theoretically applicable to each educational stakeholder including
students, parents, teachers, administrators, and school board members. Identity is a term that
encompasses a change in perception and behavior from educational stakeholders. At-risk

24. 13
students need identity to sense that they are in the right place. This sense of a healthy identity is
an important part of a positive learning environment. Teachers must encourage confidence and
create an environment where at-risk students believe they are free to learn in the classroom.
Essentially, administrators can provide teachers with information regarding discursive identity
theory as a framework for understanding the identity of at-risk students, which enables efficient
decision-making regarding effective classroom management. The theory of discursive identity
permits a more accurate interpretation of behavioral expectations and supports effective
integration of relevant professional development activities sensitive to the needs of at-risk
students.
The behavior of at-risk students reflects identity, which educators thrive to understand.
Foundational theories, such as Eric Erikson’s identity theory, are by nature broad in scope and
provide background necessary to understand research on identity. The study of identity
development is a recent phenomenon built on previous theories and based on cultures to provide
a frame for considering identity development (Theoretical Frameworks of Identity, 2003). The
identity of at-risk students is a developmental process. Theoretical Frameworks of Identity
(2003) reported the identity theory as the development of ego, part of the personality that brings
order to experiences, and the outward expressions of what defines the individual. Erikson’s
identity model serves as a basis for numerous identity models. Theoretical Frameworks of
Identity explained that Marcia’s identity theory (1966), based on Erikson’s theory (1964),
explored the development of identity along two dimensions of being aware of an identity crisis to
explore and resolve, and make the commitment to identity after a period of exploring various
behaviors and ways of being. An at-risk student may encounter an identity crisis, for which
teachers become responsible for making the distinction and intervening. The emphasis of

25. 14
Marcia’s identity theory (1966) is on the developmental process as well. Marcia’s theory is not
viewed necessarily as an occurring in stage. The theory is based on the assumptions that
commitments that may manifest without identity structures and identity can exist without
commitments (Theoretical Frameworks of Identity, 2003).
Arthur Chickering (1969) also developed an identity theory based on Erikson’s theory;
the framework for Chickering’s theory of education and identity includes sectors or
developmental tasks such as developing competence, which includes personal achievements and
the likelihood to facilitate accomplishments (Theoretical Frameworks of Identity, 2003). All
students have the capability and aptitude to learn. Feelings of competence come from confidence
in one’s ability to cope with what comes and to achieve desired goals, which also involves
managing emotions as another sector or developmental task (Theoretical Frameworks of Identity,
2003). At risk students may struggle with managing their emotions. It benefits teachers to change
their perception to supervise and administrate feelings effectively. According to Theoretical
Frameworks of Identity (2003), managing emotions involve dealing with fear, anger, depression,
and possibly dysfunctional sexual attractions. At-risk students cope with troubling emotions
daily, which can be detrimental to the learning process. Teachers can refer at-risk students to
administrators, counselors, or nurse to implement a holistic approach to support learning.
Another sector or developmental task of Chickering’s (1969) identity theory is self-sufficiency,
which encompasses a student's ability to deal with family members and maintain connections to
significant others while becoming autonomous (Theoretical Frameworks of Identity, 2003).
Other sectors or developmental tasks include developing mature, interpersonal
relationships to create intimacy with another person as well as develop tolerance and an
appreciation for others establishing identity to enhance positive sense of self with respect to

26. 15
body, gender, and sexual orientation represents another developmental task (Theoretical
Frameworks of Identity, 2003). Important issues and controversies of this study involved
immigration, which creates diversity in education. Families of various ethnicities and cultures
migrate into the United States for various reasons such as opportunities and a better way of life.
Identification in diverse populations is a critical element. Global movements and migration have
disrupted the identity of at-risk students and their sense of belonging. Experiences of different
cultures have an impact on the sense of identity (Theoretical Frameworks of Identity, 2003).
Definition of Terms
The following definitions were referred to throughout the study:
At-risk behavior - The phrase at-risk refers to any behavior that can compromise
successful development and includes behavior that may jeopardize accomplishment of
developmental tasks, fulfillment of social roles, acquisition of particular skills, or achievement of
a sense of competency (Baldwin, 2000).
Behavior Problem – this term is defined as any action or conduct that interferes with the
learning process. Chessor et al. (2008) defined behavior problem as a common outcome of
frustration or boredom, which occurs in the classroom and requires analyzing the situation and
careful monitoring of achievement and behavior.
Educational Quality – Houchins, Puckett-Patterson, Crosby, Shippen, and Jolivette
(2009) defined educational quality as providing positive school facilities and instructions to
improve services for regular, special, and vocational education.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB): The NCLB Act, which represents the 2001 federal
legislation decision regarding accountability and school choice, play a critical role in educational
quality of at-risk students. According to Manos (2009), NCLB perpetuates greater choice for

27. 16
parents, accountability for results, more local control and flexibility, and an emphasis on doing
what works based on scientific research.
Principal: The principal(s) are the leaders, directors, and persons in charge of a school
campus; however, this designation does not include teachers, team leaders, or any other specialist
position. The role of the principal as a school leader is to emphasize the creation of a climate
conducive to career building for teaching candidates (Gross, 2009).
Teachers and paraprofessionals or teacher aide: Teachers and paraprofessionals are
highly qualified personnel hired and evaluated by the school district as instructors, facilitators,
and managers of classrooms. The Texas Education Agency (2010) reported the requirement that
all teachers be highly qualified, which applies to all public elementary or secondary
schoolteachers employed by a local educational agency who teach a core academic subject area.
Highly qualified means that the teacher has obtained full Texas teacher certification, holds a
minimum of a bachelor's degree, and has demonstrated subject matter competency in each of the
academic subjects in which the teacher teaches (Texas Education Agency, 2010).
Teacher perception – Teachers have the opinion that most of the low-attainment students
lacked competence in carrying out their projects, namely due to their poor language proficiency
and their inability to work independently (Koh, Wang, Tan, Liu, & Ee, 2009).
Parental involvement: Parental involvement is an appropriate level of participation and
volunteering in school activities, programs, and student’s homework. The State educational
agency notifies of parental involvement policies and practices to determine if requirements are
met (Texas Education Agency, 2007). Nonetheless, Risko and Walker-Dalhouse, (2009)
expressed that parental involvement in schools can have a positive influence on student’s school
achievement by implementing such strategies as attending community events and meeting

28. 17
parents in out-of school places.
This research or this study: Within the contents of this paper, these phrases are referred
to as the author’s original dissertation work.
Assumptions
An assumption was school leaders will show an interest in learning more about students
and students' sense of identity. According to Richardson (2009), the United States NCLB Act has
changed perceptions regarding the improvement of academic achievement by promoting
confidence in teachers and helping inspire school administrators to improve education. The
nature of professional relationships between teachers and their perception of students is
important (Jelas, 2000). Teachers and school leaders interact daily. An assumption was teachers
and administrators had the knowledge and experience to explore further the relation to identity
and the educational quality of at-risk students. Another assumption was participants would be
honest in the surveys and interviews to reflect the condition of educating at-risk students.
Another assumption was the instructions for the interviews would be helpful in the
screening process. The respondents appropriately represented the teacher population of Cinco de
Mayo is an assumption. The results of this study may not apply to other schools. Another
assumption was respondents would allot time to participate in the interviews. Because schools
meet Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), assumptions relate to students achieving set standards.
All teachers are highly qualified because NCLB promotes hiring and evaluating certified
personnel, yet at-risk students lack educational quality and continue to earn low standardized test
scores.
Scope of the Study

29. 18
The scope of this phenomenological study was to explore classroom experiences of 11
Texas (K-12) educational leaders regarding beliefs about students and students' sense of identity.
Open-ended interview questions and face-to-face interviews were used to gather information.
Prior to the interview questions, additional participant information was retrieved from the
educational leaders such as job title, total years of service, teaching grade level, gender, and
teacher certification. No other identifying or demographic data was collected. The educational
leaders were interviewed based on their available time. The target population was chosen
because the differences in TAKS scores and educational quality for at-risk students. Other
criteria were not considered. The goal of this research study was to gain insights about how
behavior and discipline issues hinder instructional learning in the classroom and provide teachers
with knowledge and skills to manage at-risk students. Other aspects of instruction or classroom
management were not considered within the scope of this inquiry.
Rationale
At-risk students are becoming an increasing concern for teachers and administrators
(Swindell, 2006). Reports showed that 48.4% of students in Texas public schools were diagnosed
at risk (Comprehensive Annual Report, 2008). In 2007, the estimated population of Harris
County was 3,935, 855, which entailed Caucasians 73.6%, Hispanics 38.6%, African Americans
18.9%, Asians 5.5%, and American Indians .6% (Harris County Profile, n.d.). At-risk students
make up a large portion of the population in Texas public schools. The TAKS (Texas
Assessment of Knowledge and Skills) scores reflected potential discrepancies in educational
quality. The "Comprehensive Annual Report", also reported that the one of the largest differences
in TAKS performance between at risk and non-at-risk students was in mathematics and science.

30. 19
In 2008, 98.6% of fifth grade at-risk students tested and scored the lowest grades at 66%
(Comprehensive Annual Report, 2008). The difference in fifth grade TAKS Math passing rates
was 30 points between at-risk and non-at-risk African American students. The test score
difference between at-risk and non-at-risk Hispanics was 25 points. The test score difference
between at-risk and non-at-risk Whites was 24 points, at-risk and non-at-risk female students was
28 points, and at-risk and non-at-risk male students was 25 points (Comprehensive Annual
Report, 2008). The differences in 5th grade TAKS Science passing rates was 30 points between
African Americans, 27 points between Hispanics, 21 points for Whites, 36 points for females,
and 23 points for male students (Comprehensive Annual Report, 2008). The annual report stated
the differences in TAKS mathematics performance between at risk students and non-at risk
students increased across grade levels. Based on the concept that all students can learn if
provided with equal opportunities, the aforementioned TAKS scores between at-risk students and
non-at-risk students present differences in educational quality. The discoveries of this qualitative
study are capable of changing professional development programs to provide teachers with better
options, changing teacher perception of at-risk students, and providing at-risk students with
highly qualified teachers.
Limitations
This study was limited by restrictions to educational leaders who manage at-risk students
in a rural (K-12) Texas public school. The study was restricted to this particular school district
and the study may not represent all at-risk students enrolled in Texas public schools.
Generalizing the results did not represent the nation. A limitation was a potentially biased
researcher. The readers of this study can understand and determine if the discoveries can be
applied to future research. A qualitative method with a phenomenological design for the data

31. 20
analysis was appropriate for this study.
This study was limited to time constraints and preparation. This study was restricted to
the attempt to explore educational leaders' experiences in Texas public school classrooms. This
study was limited to educational leaders who volunteered to participate. The sample of the study
was selected purposefully. The integrity of the educational leaders was a limitation.
Delimitations
This study delimited by addressing the scope and boundaries. The delimitations of this
study were confined to interviews for further research. The study was delimited to (K-12)
educational leaders who manage at-risk students attending Cinco de Mayo public schools in
Texas. The school district was selected based on the number of at-risk students in the regular
classroom. Alternative school placement was a limitation externally exposed.
According to Edmondson (2005), alternative schooling is a parental choice of educational
views found within a regular public school setting, which represents the ideals of justice,
participatory democracy, self-actualization, and freedom in education. An exploration of teacher
perception provided the body of knowledge for this study. Jamjoom (2010) explained that
researchers describe and interpret data through an exhaustive textual and structural analysis
aimed at delimiting the essence of the phenomenon under consideration.
Summary
NCLB laws mainstream all students in the regular classroom and require schools to teach
based on a curriculum that emphasizes standardized assessment of select content areas such as
math, science, reading, and writing. TAKS scores of at-risk students are low. An exploration of
the impact of teacher perception on the identity development and educational quality of at-risk
students in their learning environments expanded awareness in professional development

32. 21
programs. The behavior and discipline problems disrupted learning in the classroom and resulted
in loss of instructional time.
Teacher perceptions and abilities to deal with at-risk students can be improved through
the implantation of effective professional development programs and activities geared toward
understanding the needs of diverse student populations. Relevant training encourages teachers to
learn effective strategies, which can alter teacher perception and improve educational quality of
at-risk students. Chapter 2 entails a unique review of historical and current literature including
information on etiological issues of identity and educational quality of at-risk students,
educational literature, psychological, counseling, emotional intelligence, and literature pertaining
to identity theories.

33. 22
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Chapter 2 includes a review of literature based on previously researched information
relating to educational leaders' experiences of students and students' sense of identity. The
purpose of this study was to explore the classroom experiences of educational leaders in relation
to behavior and discipline problems in the classroom that may cause disruptions in the learning
process. This qualitative phenomenological research study explored the lived experiences of
educational leaders with emphasis on interactions with at-risk students. This chapter presents an
overview of current and historical literature searches related to identity and educational quality
of at-risk students. The chapter included an outline of teacher perception as the investigated
phenomena and contained information based on previous researched information.
This study involved a review of four types of literature including etiological issues of
students and students' sense of identity. This study provided a review of etiological issues,
educational literature, psychological literature, and literature pertaining to identity theories. The
etiological literature concerning at-risk students involved a variety of causal issues such as
teacher perception and significant roles and responsibilities of each educational stakeholder. The
educational literature concerning at-risk students involved a summary of educational entities
such as JESPAR (Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk), Texas Education Agency
(TEA), and NEA (National Education Association). This chapter also involved the examination
of particular aspects of NCLB (No Child Left Behind) regulations that mandate inclusion and

34. 23
mainstreaming of students.
The review of psychology literature based on counseling and emotional intelligence
supported an exploration of identity development and educational quality of at-risk students. At-
risk students and teachers deal with strong emotions daily. Appropriate interventions such as
effective counseling programs support educational quality. The literature review of identity
theories covered a variety of theories detailed further in the theoretical framework. The
documentation relating to educational leaders' experiences with at-risk students and students'
sense of identity.
Documentation
Themes that emerge from literature permit new ways of teaching and learning
(Georgiadis & Apostolos, 2009). The literature search included topics related to the problem
statement, professional development, curriculum adjustments, and NCLB. An extensive title
search on identity and educational quality of at-risk students was performed. The documentation
included peer-reviewed publications, journals, and research documents relating to educational
leaders' experiences and the educational quality of at-risk students. University of Phoenix’s
online library was used to search various databases. The EBSCOhost, Thomas Gale PowerSearch
(formerly known as InfoTrac OneFile), ProQuest, and other specific databases were used during
title searches. EBSCOhost database title searches on identity returned 27 results. EBSCOhost
produced 83 sources relating to teacher perception of at-risk students, Thomas Gale Power
Search did not provide any sources, and ProQuest exuded 40 documents regarding teacher
perception of at-risk students. Thomas Gale PowerSearch database did not find any information
and ProQuest produced 10 documents relevant to identity. EBSCOhost title search involving the
educational quality of at-risk students yielded 36 results, Thomas Gale Power Search did not

35. 24
provide any results, and ProQuest recorded seven results. EBSCOhost title search on educational
quality of at-risk students provided 112 documents; Thomas Gale Power Search returned 15, and
ProQuest listed 26 documents. The title searches represented the amount of research pertinent to
students and students' sense of identity.
The reference pages and bibliography from other research documents provided articles
related to students' sense of identity. University of Phoenix Dissertation and Thesis database did
not return any sources relating to the researched topics and no sources returned from a search on
the ProQuest Dissertation and Theses. Other documentation encompassed peer-reviewed journal
articles, dissertations, local, state, and federal reports, scholarly books, and online libraries. Few
articles addressed teacher perception and the educational quality of at-risk students. The
documentation provided the basis for a historical overview of education for at-risk students.
Historical Overview of Education for At-risk Students
In 1857, 100 educators answered a national call to unite as one voice in the cause of
public education due to reading and writing being a luxury for particular groups of children and a
crime for other children (National Education Association, 2010). The National Education
Association (NEA) online document proclaimed that in 1904, John Robert Edward Lee formed
the National Association of Colored Teachers, and later named American Teachers Association
(ATA). As early as 1926, National Education Association (NEA) and ATA worked on issues of
educational equity as racial desegregation during the Civil Rights Movement and in 1965,
President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). In
1966, NEA and ATA unified and in 2001, the Bush administration signed the NCLB Act, which
mandates education as an essential right for every American child (National Education
Association, 2010). The perception and lived experiences of teachers working with diverse

36. 25
student populations provide opportunities to explore and understand whether and how these
promises are realized in the classroom (Georgiadis & Apostolos, 2009).
The mainstreaming and inclusion mandates of NCLB require at-risk students to
participate in the regular classroom setting despite disruptions and interferences in the learning
process. NCLB authorize educational laws for public schools based on educational standards.
The law was designed to mandate that all students have access to a high quality curriculum and
pedagogical practices grounded in research. The Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Act
(IDEA) mandated access to the general education curriculum for students with disabilities
(Alexander & Blue, 2010). NCLB was an act to close the achievement gap with accountability,
flexibility, and choice, so that no child is left behind (United States Department of Education,
2009). The National Education Association (2010) stated that NCLB funded the Title I federal
aid program aimed at reducing achievement gaps between rich and poor and among the races.
NCLB links federal funds to penalties for schools that do not meet a series of standards
The United States Department of Education (2009) provided that NCLB’s purpose, which
involves supporting high-quality educational programs for migratory children, was to ensure that
disparities among states do not penalize students. The law also ensures that migratory children
receive appropriate educational services, and enable migratory students to receive full
opportunities. NCLB’s purpose is to design programs to help migratory students overcome
educational disruptions, cultural barriers, social isolations, and other factors that inhibit student
success.
The National Education Association is the nation’s largest professional employer
organization committed to advancing public education for students. Texas Education Agency
(TEA) is a local agency that provided information regarding the initiatives to support the

37. 26
educational quality of at-risk students. The Journal of Education for Students Placed At-Risk
(JESPAR) concentrates on improving the education of students placed at-risk. The history of
education for at-risk students has been documented in relation to the history of education in
general, and with particular emphasis on various cultures.
History of Cultural Diversity
According to Maude, Catlett, Moore, Sanchez, Thorp, and Corso (2010), 12 years ago
teachers modified their curricula and practices to be more reflective of the growing diversity in
the United States. Large-scale colonization and expansion of trade by land and sea among
different countries stimulated the integration of world markets for goods, capital, and labor by
the middle of the nineteenth century (Barchuk & Harkins, 2010). As a result, diverse groups of
people migrated to the United States. According to Zuzeviciute (2009), globalization is a process
of the mobility of people, capital, and information. Barchuk and Harkins (2010) reported that
although globalization is not a new phenomenon, the popular concept has emerged in the last two
decades. The impact of globalization has become more widely felt as the interconnectedness and
interdependency of cultures are within organizations, cultures, and societies of the world (Irving,
2010). Barchuk and Harkins (2010) agreed by stating that the history of human civilization has
entered a new era as neither nation nor individual remains untouched by globalization.
Zuzeviciute also posited that mobility has achieved the largest scope in history through the
development of a multicultural society.
Alongside advances in transportation, technology and communication have provided a
powerful host for bringing people into proximity and accessibility (Irving, 2010). Barchuk and
Harkins (2010) emphasized the inability to prevent changes such as globalization and the
urgency to learn, grow, and advance together. Irving (2010) informed that the presence of

38. 27
globalization force people to see and embrace similarities and differences of intercultural
interactions. Globalization encapsulates diverse activities of various social entities and their
environments (Zuzeviciute, 2009). Large and small organizations face the reality that the global
perspective of leaders is not sufficient to meet the demands of globalization (Irving, 2010).
Transformation in education cannot be achieved without the transformation of the teachers that
reflects the global changes impacting society (Barchuk & Harkins, 2010). Irving (2010) placed
emphasis on the need to take the reality of globalization seriously by accepting other cultures.
Multiculturalism is a fact of a modern society, which necessitates developing an
awareness of the rules and expectations in different situations (Zuzeviciute, 2009). Zuzeviciute
asserted that cultural education is preparation for the social realities in culturally diverse and
complex human encounters. American classrooms are becoming more diverse; therefore, the
literature included in school and classroom libraries needs to reflect rich diversity (Al-Hazza,
2010). Zuzeviciute (2009) added that learning in multicultural contexts involves certain attitudes
to new situations and people.
Wilson (2009) agreed that the twenty-first century global society brings a learning
environment of diverse cultural backgrounds, and the differences can harness beliefs about
respect and disrespect. Cultural awareness, respect for others, and the ability to communicate and
collaborate in a multicultural world are important core competencies (Zuzeviciute, 2009). Wilson
(2010) reported that respect was a significant value and 85% of students complain of feeling
disrespected by those with cultural differences. Stories are powerful tools that can be used to
convey cultural values (Al-Hazza, 2010), and the use of story in better understanding concepts of
culture and it impact is one of the affordances of phenomenology.
A cultured education equips students to learn and function within a multicultural world

39. 28
(Zuzeviciute, 2009). The notions of respecting various cultural backgrounds are worthy of
further exploration (Wilson, 2010). Allen (2010) stated the need for curriculum developers to
include a focus on culture, diversity, and the social structures underpinning racism as a form of
discrimination. According to Al-Hazza (2010), when teachers highlight only the dominant
cultural groups in the classroom, address only a few minority stories, and vaguely discuss certain
cultural values, diverse students question if society values their culture, doubt their value in
society, and lack belonging to the community in which they interact. Al-Hazza signified that an
enormous burden is placed on students who never read books that contain pictures of people who
look similar to them or their families and never read stories about people from their culture or
share their religion.
Future research on cross-cultural teaching and learning interventions in education needs
to focus on further developing theories of culture (Allen, 2010). Such theories may enable
positive relationships between teacher and at-risk students. Allen (2010) also supported that
knowledge application of developing cross-cultured relationships are important in teaching and
learning. Students need to learn how to value all cultures, recognize that differences are an
addition, and understand a variety of cultures, which are very diverse from their own. Student
should enhance his or her understanding of the world and help develop an appreciation of
cultural differences that exist in a global society (Al-Hazza, 2010). Societal issues require
attention from educational leaders. Al-Hazza finalized that the methods that teachers use when
teaching multiculturalism can greatly enhance students’ comprehension and understanding of the
culture.
As organizations continue to experience both the opportunities and challenges
surrounding globalization, the need for intercultural competent leaders is increasingly important

40. 29
(Irving, 2010). Bryk (2010) exclaimed that schools are as good as the quality of faculty, the
professional development that supports learning, and the faculty’s capacity to work together to
improve instruction. To prepare teachers to work effectively with children and families from
cultural communities different from their own, faculty and administrators need support in
understanding the classroom and home intervention implications of diversity and how to
integrate issues related to diversity into all facets of their educational programs (Maude et al.,
2010). Information pertinent to cultural diversity and multiculturalism enable educational leaders
to gain knowledge and skills relevant to effective teaching.
The Role and Responsibility of Educational Leadership
Modern day researchers continue to research the topic of leadership as having numerous
definitions and attempt to identify the qualities and skills to be an effective leader (Campbell &
LaCost, 2010). Campbell and LaCost defined leadership as implementing programs and
workshops focusing on leadership competencies to develop the newly acquired skills. Effective
teaching is important in educational reform. Rose (2010) explained that most characterizations of
teaching miss the richness and complexity of the work. Bryk (2010) asserted that effective
teachers advance high-quality instruction, but developing good teachers and retaining them in a
particular school depends on supportive school leadership and positive work relations with
colleagues. Rose (2010) added that teachers often become a knowledge-delivery mechanism,
preparing students for standardized assessment. Teachers must develop pertinent knowledge and
skills that may change their perception. Educational leadership can provide professional
development for teachers to learn new knowledge and skills. This concept can lead to changes in
identity development and educational quality of at-risk students.
Bryk declared that educational leadership involves the ability to recruit and retain capable

41. 30
staff, improve efficacy through professional development, and work together. Campbell and
LaCost (2010) found that leadership was studied during the times of the ancient Greeks.
Educational leaders are responsible for providing educational quality to at-risk students through
school reformation and transformation by implementing effective policies. Rose (2010)
exclaimed that the history of school reform teaches educational leaders that ideas can become
one-dimensional from the concepts through policy formation to implementation. Rose also stated
that ideas such as NCLB lead to counterproductive practices and narrowing curricula that
primarily focuses on preparing for high-stakes tests in math and language Arts. Future educators
need to recognize the intangible dimensions of learning about cultures such as values, beliefs,
and practices that a particular student can embrace (Maude et al., 2010). As an emphasis on
multiculturalism in teacher education programs may not be sufficient to prepare teachers for this
changing world, ongoing professional development is critical.
Professional Development
High quality professional development as a key instrument for change can improve
student learning (Bryk, 2010). Rose (2010) emphasized the strong demands for additional
professional development. Professional development can provide teachers with instructional
strategies, appropriate knowledge, and skills. Buysse, Castro, and Peisner-Feinberg (2010) stated
that professional development should be designed to complement core classroom curriculum
including specific instructional strategies. Maude et al. (2010) demonstrated that personnel
preparation programs, especially teacher education, offer a significant vehicle for influencing
knowledge, skills, and dispositions of educators and administrators. Professional development is
a way to transfer information.
Buysse et al. (2010) listed professional development as a strategy to promote teachers’

42. 31
acquisition of core content knowledge and skills. Professional development supports
implementation of new instructional strategies in the classroom and provides teachers with
opportunities for feedback, reflection, and collaborative problem solving. Within early childhood
and the broader field of education, there is still much unknown about the linkage in professional
development to a precise measurement of teacher knowledge and skills (Maude et al., 2010).
Buysse et al. (2010) stated that future research related to professional development must
establish a reasonable time between the implementation of new classroom practices and practices
that result in improved student achievement.
Maude et al. (2010) reported a significant change in content, instructional strategies,
knowledge, and skills related culturally responsive practices in the courses of professional
development. Goldschmidt and Phelps (2010) expressed that positive practice and methodology
establishes clear relations among professional development programs, teacher learning,
instructional improvement, and student outcomes. Maude et al. (2010) suggested that preparing
teachers to work with children of various cultures supports classroom interventions. Educational
reform initiatives has attempted to develop teachers by integrating alternative pathways to
certification, professional development, merit pay linked to test-scores, and holding teachers
accountable for standardized test scores (Maude et al.). Goldschmidt and Phelps (2010) stated
that understanding teacher knowledge as a relation to effective teaching practices and student
achievement requires more work. The knowledge and skills learned from professional
development programs can help fill the gaps in historical literature.
Gaps in Historical Literature
Little research directs the preparation of teachers for globalization as a controversial,
present-day phenomenon (Barchuk & Harkins, 2010). Various types of cultures and families

43. 32
have migrated to schools, which create diverse student populations. The need to prepare teachers
for diversity in the classroom is integral to student achievement. Irving (2010) explained that
educational leaders agree that preparing people for the demands of globalization is vitally
important; but the question of how education will continue is not clear. The gaps in historical
consciousness between generations because of the hip-hop culture exist and are noteworthy
(Dagbovie, 2005). The gaps in historical research indicate the need for further exploration of
identity and educational quality of at-risk students. This study will attempt to narrow the gaps in
historical and current literature and attempt to highlight the need for more research in the field.
Current Literature on At-risk Students
This paper provided a definition of at-risk to enable clarity and identification of
associated terms and phrases. Particularly important, is the development of a definition that
reflects the nature of at-risk (Baldwin, 2000). At-risk is a vague phrase measured by perceptions
of preceding circumstances. Literature on at-risk students illustrated the important differences in
the characteristics of the individual and the environment within which he or she resides. Baldwin
also clarified that the essence of defining at-risk involves particular antecedents such as personal
characteristics, demographics, social status, and the community. These antecedents related to a
particular individual or a group prior to engaging in risk behaviors.
At-risk entails a variety of experiences and behaviors, which shape a learning
environment. At-risk refers to any behavior that compromise successful development. This
includes behavior that may jeopardize accomplishment of developmental tasks, fulfillment of
social roles, acquisition of particular skills, or achievement of a sense of competency. Examples
of at-risk behaviors involve substance abuse, withdrawal from school involvement, unprotected
sexual intercourse, driving after drinking, and engaging in violence (Baldwin, 2000).

44. 33
Additional descriptive terms of at-risk students included suicide and other disorders.
Baldwin (2000) reported that rates of suicide continue to rise due to factors such as age, sex,
ethnicity, psychiatric disorders, psychological factors, abuse, and family factors. Baldwin listed
types of risks illustrated in Kagan’s (1992) framework that reflected different levels. Type one
risk identified youth as having chronic school failure. Type two risks referred to youth who often
act out anxiety or anger by violating parental or societal standards. Type three risks described the
individual who is susceptible to peer persuasion and the desire to be accepted by his or her peers.
Type four risks related to individuals proving that he or she is not fearful, and type five risks
referred to individuals who typically reside in environments in which family and peers
communicate that stealing, pregnancy, or drugs are normal behaviors. Baldwin also found that
accurately defining at-risk terminology enables more concentrated program designs and specific
program outcomes.
Paone, Packman, Maddux, and Rothman (2003) stated that students who fail to succeed
in a new environment are at-risk. Spiteri (2008) defined at-risk students as either habitual school
absentees or who present behavior that authorities deem overly disruptive within the mainstream
system of schooling. At-risk students relate either to the mainstream system of school rejecting
the student or the student rejecting the mainstream system. Mainstreaming is an attempt to
include all students, including those at-risk, in the regular classroom setting.
Gillborn and Kirton (2000) noted that a true representation of education involves students
who continue to experience significant and consistent inequalities of opportunities. At-risk
students are routinely labeled and prioritized lower than other students. Students placed lower
down the hierarchy are conscious of differences and often experience more feelings of
resentment, isolation, and de-motivation (Gillborn & Kirton). At-risk students are receptive to

45. 34
negative mannerism and outlooks, sensitive especially to injustices as second-class citizens, and
constantly compared unfavorably to their peers, labeled as inferior, and treated less worthy
(Gillborn & Kirton, 2000).
Teachers make ethical decisions relating to meeting the needs of at-risk students. Meeting
the needs of at-risk students may lead to alleviating and minimizing inequalities, while failing to
meet them can aggravate risk behaviors for these students. Teachers may publicly ridicule,
criticize, and emphasize students with a lower status. Highlighting failures and institutionalizing
differences between groups does not support the educational system designed to serve the needs
of different students. This can result in inequality (Gillborn & Kirton, 2000). According to the
Comprehensive Annual Report (2008), a student at-risk is:
• Under 21 years and not advanced from one grade level to the next for one or more
school years,
• A student who did not maintain an average equivalent to at least 70 on a scale of 100
in two or more subjects during a semester,
• A student who did not perform satisfactorily on an assessment instrument
administered by Texas Education Agency (TEA),
• A student who is pregnant or is a parent,
• A student placed in an alternative education program or expelled,
• A student who is currently on parole, probation, deferred prosecution, or other
conditional release,
• A student reported though the Public Education Information Management Systems
(PEIMS) to have dropped out of school,
• A student with limited English proficiency, or

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• A student in custody or care of the Department of Protective and Regulatory
Services.
The Comprehensive Annual Report also clarified at-risk students as on parole, probation,
deferred prosecution, or previously dropped out of school. Other descriptive of at-risk students
include having limited English proficiency, in custody of the Department of Protective and
Regulatory Services, homeless, or residing in a residential placement facility in the district such
as detention facilities, substance abuse treatment facilities, emergency shelter psychiatric
hospitals, halfway houses, or foster group homes. The current literature helped explain the
current state of educational quality for at-risk students.
Current State of Education for At-risk Students
Zaman (2008) found that educators in the 1990s began to notice that students from lower
socio-economic groups were not keeping pace; in addition, Shaw (2008) stated that the current
educational system does not provide an educational home for such students. Chessors et al.
(2008) expressed that a curriculum can go beyond the cognitive grasp of particular groups of
students by not maintaining cultural or social relevance. Teachers can deliver at a pace and in a
style that does not foster teaching for all students. Shaw noted that if NCLB is to be more than an
empty promise, then educational programming must improve for the large population of students
currently being left behind. Shaw further explained that students with borderline intelligence
have been an overlooked population and generally unsuccessful in the general education
environment.
Three major educational trends have served as catalysts for improving the education.
These include movement toward needs-based criteria, increased used of inclusive practices, and
the mandate to increase test scores on standardized achievement tests developed by states (Shaw,

47. 36
2008). Palmer and Lynch (2008) explained that TAKS is administered annually to students in
third through eighth grades and carries high stakes at the federal, state, and local levels. The
testing system is used to rank and assign ratings to schools statewide. The ratings carry
consequences for poor performance including eventual state takeover. TAKS tests are used to
determine whether children will be permitted to advance to the next grade, with grade retention
looming as a threat over children who fail to achieve passing scores (Palmer & Lynch). TAKS is
a description of the current literature on initiatives for at-risk students. The differences in TAKS
test scores and the various initiatives implemented for at-risk students were investigated.
Current Literature on Initiatives for At-risk Students
When teachers cannot create and foster a community of learners, at-risk students often
experience stigmatization and perceptions as troublemakers, which can lead to isolation and
exclusion from classroom activities. This leads to the at-risk student being left academically and
socially behind (Zaman, 2008). Zaman also emphasized efforts made through curriculum
modifications and training attempt to meet the needs of at-risk students. According to The
Comprehensive Annual Report (2008), implementing programs can increase the academic
performance of students identified as at-risk of dropping out of school. The Texas Education
Agency (2010) listed the dropout prevention projects used to accommodate diverse student
populations. These projects include optional flexible school day programs that allow schools to
institute flexible schedules for at-risk students. The Communities in Schools program provides
support and services for students at risk of dropping out of school. The Limited English
Proficient Student Success Initiative offers intensive programs of instruction for students with
limited English proficiency to enable him or her to meet state performance standards and
graduation requirements.

48. 37
In 2007, Texas legislature expanded state efforts to reduce dropout rate by providing
funding for dropout prevention initiatives including a study for best practices for dropout
prevention. To reduce dropout prevention, pilot programs were created as collaborative efforts
with local entities, intensive summer programs for students identified as at-risk, technology-
based supplemental instructional programs for at-risk students, and grants for student clubs for
students identified at-risk (Comprehensive Annual Report, 2008). Various plans help at-risk
students meet state standards of assessment. In the 2007-08 school year, substantial changes and
modifications were made to the assessment options for students with disabilities. Those
modifications included larger fonts, fewer items per page, fewer answer choices, simpler
vocabulary, and simpler sentence structure (Comprehensive Annual Report, 2008). Other
assessment modifications, as stated in The Comprehensive Annual Report (2008) includes
TAKS-Modified (TAKS-M) as an alternate assessment based on modified academic
achievement standards that measure academic progress of students. Various types of educational
environments determine initiatives for at-risk students.
At-risk students present challenges in schools that can hinder educational quality and
impede the entire class from reaching his or her potential. Many students are at-risk from the
high rate of violence in schools. At-risk students are culprits of violence in schools due to their
inability to manage emotions and behaviors in particular environments. Youth violence is a
complex set of behaviors influenced by characteristics of the child and the environment (Turner,
Powell, Langhinrichsen-Rohling & Carson, 2009). Initiatives for violence in schools attempt to
prevent violent behaviors. Turner et al. also expressed that school systems and administrators, as
well as community partners are highly motivated to reduce school violence and keep schools safe
through prevention and reduction. High-risk behaviors vary among schools, administrators,

49. 38
communities, and students. Microsystems are used as initiatives to help understand the student's
influences and environment. Microsystems are composed of family, school, and any other aspect
of the environment in direct connection with the child (Turner et al., 2009). They play a strong
role in influencing the students' development. Teachers may be unable to manage the classroom
effectively. Another challenge of teaching at-risk students entails developing character in
learning environments. Effective programs reduce the risk factors by promoting characteristics
associated with resiliency (Turner et al., 2009). At-risk students benefit from a curriculum that
builds character, instead of solely preparing for standardized testing as a requirement to meet
state standards.
At-risk students have continued to disrupt and hinder instruction and learning in the
classrooms, and the clear need to accommodate their needs in mainstream settings without
impacting the rest of the class has become a common challenge for teachers. Georgiadis and
Apostolos (2009) stated that finding ways to accommodate and support at-risk students can be an
empowering experience for teachers and students alike when teachers can show that all pupils
are equal. According to Georgiadis and Apostolos, shaping the curriculum and training personnel
are vital to educating diverse student populations. The authors also established that one of the
challenges that educational leaders face in a diversified society is the adoption of inclusive
practices that cater to the various groups of students. Barchuk and Harkins (2010) agreed that the
main challenge facing educators in the twenty-first century is finding the strategies and
approaches that meet student needs of the future. Despite the necessity for effective strategies
that empower all students in the classroom, there is only limited guidance on how to
operationalize that in the classroom. Teachers have limited guidance in this area, and this gap in
the literature is something that must be addressed before the disruptions and limitations imposed

50. 39
by the ineffective management of at-risk students can be addressed.
Various programs attempt to accommodate at-risk students and close the achievement
gaps. At-risk students continue to perform low on TAKS standardized testing. Gaps in current
literature present opportunities to explore the educational leaders' experiences relating to students
and students' sense of identity. The issues around the identity of at-risk students have been
addressed in length. The missing ingredient for teachers is the ability to counter the behavior
issues and apply relevant knowledge and skills into the classroom. This study attempts to fill in
the gaps of current research relating to educational leaders' experiences of students and students'
sense of identity. This study also attempted to explore and extend research pertaining to the need
for curricular adjustments for the betterment of at-risk students. The search for information on
germane issues encompassed several types of sources including personal experiences, television,
interviews, web-based Internet searches, e-mail correspondence, and online discussions. The
current initiatives for at-risk students relate to etiological literature, which depicts the reasons
behavior and discipline interrupts learning the classroom.
Etiological Literature
Etiologic issues contributing to the identity and educational quality of at-risk students
exuded from a host of factors. All students are at-risk when constant behavior problems consume
instruction time. Students are placed at-risk from environmental factors and issues. Morton and
Cook (2003) expressed that at-risk students perform poorly in school due to sporadic school
attendance, numerous suspensions, and expulsions. Factors such as culture play a vital role in
identity development and educational quality of at-risk students. Popular trends such as music,
social culture, social issues, and the social learning that stems from peer relations are all factors
that influence at-risk behavior and can either enforce or deter problematic behaviors.

51. 40
All human beings are embedded in culture (Zuzeviciute, 2009) and popular culture has a
profound impact on youth (Henfield et al., 2010). Henfield et al. supported that with the advent
and increased use of innovative mass communicative and technological devices, the influence of
popular culture on youth has unmatched any other time in history. Culture plays a vital role in
education. Although many educators have asserted the significant impact of school culture on
student’s perceptions of himself or herself, popular culture associates students’ lives inside and
outside the context of school (Henfield et al.). Etiological issues include the hip-hop influence on
the formation of student attitudes and behaviors.
Hip-hop influence. Zuzeviciute (2009) expressed that the cultural context always
influences and shapes students because each person reacts to the world and experiences based on
his or her beliefs. DJs in the 1970s sparked the hip-hop culture and expanded into urban clothing,
expensive jewelry, cars, speech patterns, and mindsets (Jackson & Anderson, 2009). Music
artists, sports figures, and other professions share association with culture. Jackson and Anderson
also affirmed that hip-hop continues to be a realm for expressing feelings about politics, crime,
poverty, violence, and other social issues through song lyrics, urban-themed movies, and
informal conversation. Although hip-hop has been criticized for the negative influence on
students, televisions persists to publicize and advertise culture (Jackson & Anderson). At-risk
students exposed to the hip-hop culture tend to develop the popular trends. According to Jackson
and Anderson, educational leaders must understand the influence, purpose, and language of the
hip-hop culture. The authors extend that the last 35 years are indicative that culture is not
disappearing anytime soon.
Sanchez (2010) discovered the validity of using hip-hop in the classroom. The author
found that students who are labeled as needing remedial classes are in a position to educate

52. 41
teachers about culture if he or she is willing to listen. Teachers can learn from students and use
their learning preferences to improve student achievement. The importance and meaning of hip-
hop music is relative to the lives of students. Hip-hop can be used to educate teachers about
expressive artistic literature (Sanchez, 2010). Sanchez also concluded that hip-hop music could
be used as student-centered approaches to transitional English. Teachers can use this information
to create learning opportunities and promote student interests in learning.
Henfield et al. (2010) explained that the popularity of hip-hop culture is in the forefront
of education. Sanchez (2010) wrote an article about teachers who implement activities that
require students to read, discuss, analyze, and review hip-hop artists such as Grandmaster Flash
and Naz. Teachers can provide opportunities to make connections from hip-hop texts to poetry
texts such as Shakespeare and Angelou. These opportunities present engaging, culturally relevant
opportunities to explore structures of language and universal themes that more traditionally texts
offer.
Henfield et al. (2010) further explained that the four fundamental elements of hip-hop
include rapping, disc jockey, graffiti, and break dancing. Hip-hop elements help shape student’s
culture. Rapping is a mouthpiece for a master of ceremony (MC) and a disc jockey (DJ) provides
music that conveys a message. Break dancing evolved from African Brazilian martial art and
graffiti leaves artistic marks on walls (Henfield et al.). Kiuchi (2010) reported a reflection on DJ
Disco Wiz Cedeno, who tells about his personal struggles with poverty, alcohol, drugs, violence,
and prison as a youth growing up during the formative years of hip-hop. The author also
mentioned that rapping about the socio-economic struggles and aspirations for social agency
helped form the foundation for hip-hop culture. The expressions used throughout the
communities and implanted in students’ schema may result in similar behavior. Parents, teachers,

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and school counselors must achieve a rich understanding and appreciation of the hip-hop culture
and the relationship to student behavior as implications for improvements in education (Henfield
et al., 2010).
The hip-hop culture is a key ingredient in classrooms and can be advantageous for
educational leaders. Educational leaders must understand that the concept of relating to the way a
student communicates is not indicative of his or her interests in education or academic ability.
Henfield et al. (2010) encouraged teachers not to associate a students’ appreciation for hip-hop
culture with a devaluation of academic success. Henfield et al. also suggested that due to the
ubiquitous presence of hip-hop in the mass media, the relationship between the culture and
education is in desperate need of further exploration. Sanchez (2010) proclaimed that hip-hop
artists struggle to be agents for change in their communities while feeling the pressures to
produce music that will sell and create revenue. The hip-hop culture has strong influences on
social issues and social learning.
Social issues. Social factors have been the most commonly studied cause for at-risk
youth (Morton & Cook, 2003). Policymakers, researchers, educators, and parents recognize the
need for quality programs that address the social development of at-risk students (Reio &
Bratton, 2006). Quality programs support at-risk students by providing opportunities to develop
and exercise social skills. Social disorganization and poverty are contributors to a lack of
structure in the family systems. Weak bonding of children to their caretakers is a known as a
predictor of poor peer relations and increased aggressiveness (Morton & Cook, 2003). Behaviors
of such negativity limit learning opportunities and denunciate compliance to school rules and
policies. In extreme cases, this type of behavior can contribute to some children becoming
homicidal (Morton & Cook). Assumptions of social aspects of at-risk students involved a variety