RES701 Research Methodology Lecture 2

DEVAPRAKASAM DEIVASAGAYAM
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Room:11, LW, 2nd Floor
School of Mechanical and Building Sciences
Email: devaprakasam.d@vit.ac.in, dr.devaprakasam@gmail.com
RES701: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (3:0:0:3)
Devaprakasam D, Email: devaprakasam.d@vit.ac.in, Ph: +91 9786553933

History of Scientific Research
Philosophers
Scientists
Inventors
Innovators
Innovations
Socrates
Plato
Aristotle
Newton
Einstein
Edison
Tesla
Steve Job
Bill Gates
Google
Facebook

RESEARCH FOUNDATATIONS
 Inductive- from number of observations- bottom up
 Deductive- from whole to part- top down
 Combined -both bottom up and top down
 Non-Contradictory
 Un falsifiability
 Correspondence to reality
 Coherency and Consistency
Logic and Reasoning
Tests for Truth

Sound Reasoning
Exposition Argument
InductionDeduction
Types of Discourse

Logic and Reasoning
Induction — method of reasoning in which a generalization is argued to
be true based on individual examples that seem to fit with that
generalization. For example, after observing that trees, bacteria, sea
anemones, fruit flies, and humans have cells, one might inductively
infer that all organisms have cells.
Deduction — method of reasoning in which a conclusion is logically
reached from premises. For example, if we know the current relative
positions of the moon, sun, and Earth, as well as exactly how these move
with respect to one another, we can deduce the date and location of the
next solar eclipse.

Philosophy of Science
Logic is the backbone of critical thinking. Logic is extremely useful for
uncovering error and establishing truth. There are principles of logic and
I would like to introduce you to the first three laws of logic. These are
very important.
The Law of Identity
The Law of Non-Contradiction
The Law of Excluded Middle
1. The law of identity says that A is A, that if something exist it has a
nature, a single nature. It is what it is.
2. The law of non-contradiction says that A cannot be both A and not A
at the same time and in the same sense. Truth is not self-
contradictory.
3. The law of excluded middle says that a statement is either true or
false.

Hypothesis
An hypothesis is a limited statement regarding
cause and effect in specific situations.
 it also refers to our state of knowledge before
experimental work has been performed and
perhaps even before new phenomena have been
predicted.

3-8
The Role of Hypotheses
Guide the direction of the study
Identify relevant facts
Suggest most appropriate research design
Provide framework for organizing resulting
conclusions

3-9
Characteristics of Strong Hypotheses
A
Strong
Hypothesis
Is
Adequate
Testable
Better
than rivals

3-10
Language of Research
Variables
Models
TheoryTheory
Terms used
in research
Constructs
Operational
definitions
Propositions/
Hypotheses
Conceptual
schemes
Concepts

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Language of Research
Clear conceptualization
of concepts
Shared understanding
of concepts
Success
of
Research

3-12
The Scientific Method
Direct observationDirect observation
Clearly defined variablesClearly defined variables
Clearly defined methodsClearly defined methods
Empirically testableEmpirically testable
Elimination of alternativesElimination of alternatives
Statistical justificationStatistical justification
Self-correcting processSelf-correcting process

3-13
Researchers
•Encounter problems
•State problems
•Propose hypotheses
•Deduce outcomes
•Formulate rival
hypotheses
•Devise and conduct
empirical tests
•Draw conclusions

14
Assess
relevant
existing
knowledge
Formulate
concepts &
Propositions
Statement
of
Hypotheses
Design
research
Acquire
empirical
data
Analyze &
evaluate
data
Provide
explanation-
state new
problem
The Scientific Method:
An Overview

Scientific Method
The scientific method is the process by which scientists, collectively
and over time, endeavor to construct an accurate representation of
the world (that is, reliable, consistent and non-arbitrary)
The scientific method has four steps
1. Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of
phenomena.
2. Formulation of an hypothesis to explain the phenomena. In physics,
the hypothesis often takes the form of a causal mechanism or a
mathematical relation.
3. Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or
to predict quantitatively the results of new observations.
4. Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several
independent experimenters and properly performed experiments.

Scientific Method

Scientific
Method

RESEARCH STEPS
The major steps in conducting research are:
Identification of research problem
Literature review
Specifying the purpose of research
Determine specific research questions
Specification of a Conceptual framework - Usually a set of
hypotheses
Choice of a methodology (for data collection)
Data collection
Analyzing and interpreting the data
Reporting and evaluating research
Communicating the research findings and, possibly,
recommendations

RESEARCH STEPS
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process.
Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and
researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research,
both basic and applied:
Observations and Formation of the topic: Consists of the subject area of
ones interest and following that subject area to conduct subject related
research. The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to
already existing knowledge about the topic.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates the relationship
between two or more variables.
Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by relating it to other
concepts.
Operational definition: Details in regards to defining the variables and
how they will be measured/assessed in the study.

RESEARCH STEPS
Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and selecting
samples, gathering information from and/or about these samples by
using specific research instruments. The instruments used for data
collection must be valid and reliable.
Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of data
in order to draw conclusions about it.
Data Interpretation: This can be represented through tables, figures
and pictures, and then described in words.
Test, revising of hypothesis.
Conclusion: reiteration if necessary

Scientific Method: Conclusion
The scientific method is intricately associated with science, the process of
human inquiry that pervades the modern era on many levels. While the
method appears simple and logical in description, there is perhaps no more
complex question than that of knowing how we come to know things. In this
introduction, we have emphasized that the scientific method distinguishes
science from other forms of explanation because of its requirement of
systematic experimentation. We have also tried to point out some of the
criteria and practices developed by scientists to reduce the influence of
individual or social bias on scientific findings. Further investigations of the
scientific method and other aspects of scientific practice may be found in the
references listed below.,

Epistemology — branch of philosophy that deals with what
knowledge is, how we come to accept some things as true,
and how we justify that acceptance.
Empiricism — set of philosophical approaches to building
knowledge that emphasizes the importance
of observable evidence from the natural world.

Defined narrowly, epistemology is the study of knowledge and justified
belief. As the study of knowledge, epistemology is concerned with the
following questions:
I. What are the necessary and sufficient conditions of knowledge?
II. What are its sources?
III. What is its structure, and what are its limits?
As the study of justified belief, epistemology aims to answer questions
such as:
I. How we are to understand the concept of justification?
II. What makes justified beliefs justified?
III. Is justification internal or external to one's own mind?
Understood more broadly, epistemology is about issues having to do with
the creation and dissemination of knowledge in particular areas of inquiry.

Evolutionary epistemology refers to three distinct
topics:
(1) the biological evolution of cognitive mechanisms in
animals and humans,
(2) a theory that knowledge itself evolves by natural
selection, and
(3) the study of the historical discovery of new abstract
entities such as abstract number or abstract value
that necessarily precede the individual acquisition
and usage of such abstractions

Scientific Research
The systematic, rigorous investigation of a
situation or problem in order to generate new
knowledge or validate existing knowledge.

Quality of Good Research
 Systematic- from strong hypothesis to verifiable
thesis.
 Controlled- Variables can be tested and controlled
 Logical- Sound logical reasoning
 Empirical- Real time validation with known
parameters
 Repeatable- should be reproduced by any
researcher.
 Self Correcting- open to critical peer review and
accepting and correcting mistakes.

Types of Research
On a broader perspective, all researches can be
classified into two groups:
Qualitative research: is research dealing with phenomena
that are difficult or impossible to quantify mathematically,
such as beliefs, meanings, attributes, and symbols
Quantitative research: refers to the systematic empirical
investigation of any phenomena via statistical, mathematical
or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative
research is to develop and employ mathematical
models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to
phenomena

Types of Research
Basic Research
Applied Research
Experimental Research
Conceptual Research
Correlational Research
Descriptive Research
Exploratory Research

Types of Research
 Basic Research
Basic (aka fundamental or pure ) research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or
interest in a scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man's
knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial
value to the discoveries that result from basic research.
For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such
as:
• How did the universe begin?
• What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?
• How do slime moulds reproduce?
• What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?

Types of Research
 Applied Research
Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks
to solve practical problems. Applied research is used to find solutions
to everyday problems, cure illness, and develop innovative
technologies, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake.
For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:
• Improve agricultural crop production
• Treat or cure a specific disease
• Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of
transportation

Types of Research
 Descriptive Research
Descriptive research refers to research that provides an accurate
portrayal of characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or group.
Descriptive research, also known as statistical research.
These studies are a means of discovering new meaning, describing what
exists, determining the frequency with which something occurs, and
categorizing information.

Types of Research
 Experimental Research
Experimental research is an objective, systematic, controlled
investigation for the purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena
and examining probability and causality among selected variables.

Types of Research
 Conceptual Research
Conceptual research is related with abstract idea or theory .
Philosophers and Astronomers

Types of Research
 Correlational Research
Correlational research refers to the systematic investigation or
statistical study of relationships among two or more variables, without
necessarily determining cause and effect.

RESEARCH DESIGN

RESEARCH SURVEY

RES701 Research Methodology Lecture 2

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RES701 Research Methodology Lecture 2