1. Instructional Design

2. Instructional Design

Maximise the effectiveness, efficiency and
appeal of instruction and other learning
experiences.

3. Instructional Design

The process consists of determining the
current state and needs of the learner,
defining the end goal of instruction, and
creating some "intervention" to assist in the
transition.

4. Instructional Design

The outcome of this instruction may be
directly observable and scientifically
measured or completely hidden and
assumed.

5. Lev Vygotsky




Born Nov 17 1896
Died June 11, 1934
Bron in Orsha, in the
Russian Empire (today
in Belarus).
a Soviet psychologist
and the founder of
cultural-historical
psychology.

6. Zone of Proximal Development




Vygotsky’s term for the range of
tasks that are too difficult for the
student to master alone but that
can be learned with guidance and
assistance of adults or moreskilled children.
The lower limit of ZPD is the level
of skill reached by the child
working independently.
The upper limit is the level of
additional responsibility the child
can accept with the assistance of
an able instructor.
Scaffolding is changing the level
of support. Over the course of a
teaching session, a more-skilled
person adjusts the amount of
guidance to fit the child’s current
performance

7. Instructional Design

We can divide models of instructional
design broadly into two categories


MARCO: Models which concern
themselves with the design and planning
of an entire module or programme
MICRO: Models which concern
themselves with the design and planning
of an individual lecture or teaching
session

8. Instructional Design
Macro Models:
Program-level Design

9. Benjamin S. Bloom





Born Feb 21, 1913
Died Sept 13, 1999
Born in Lansford,
Pennsylvania.
Educational
psychologist
Editor of “Taxonomy of
Educational
Objectives, Handbook
1: Cognitive Domain”

10. Bloom’s Taxonomy




In the 1950s Bloom helped
developed a taxonomy of
cognitive objectives in
“Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives, Handbook 1:
Cognitive Domain”
Means of expressing qualitatively
different kinds of thinking
Been adapted for classroom use
as a planning tool and continues
to be one of the most universally
applied models
Provides a way to organise
thinking skills into six levels, from
the most basic to the more
complex levels of thinking

11. Bloom’s Taxonomy

12. Bloom’s Taxonomy
(Meaning)
•Evaluation: compare and discriminate between ideas, assess value
of theories, presentations make choices based on reasoned argument,
verify value of evidence, recognize subjectivity
•Synthesis: use old ideas to create new ones, generalize from given
facts, relate knowledge from several areas, predict, draw conclusions
•Analysis: seeing patterns, organization of parts, recognition of
hidden meanings, identification of components
•Application: use information use methods, concepts, theories in new
situations, solve problems using required skills or knowledge
•Comprehension: understanding information,grasp meaning,
translate knowledge into new context
•Knowledge: observation and recall of information,knowledge of
dates, events, places knowledge of major ideas

13. Bloom’s Taxonomy
(Verbs)
•Evaluation: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend
estimate, judge, predict, rate, score, select, support, value
•Synthesis: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create,
design, develop, formulate, manage, organize, plan, prepare
•Analysis: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize, compare, contrast,
criticize, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine
•Application: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ,
illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve, use
•Comprehension: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express,
identify, indicate, locate, recognize, report, restate, review
•Knowledge: arrange, define, duplicate, label, list, memorize, name,
order, recognize, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce, state

15. Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised



In the 1990s Lorin
Anderson, a former
student of Bloom, led a
new assembly which met
for the purpose of
updating the taxonomy,
hoping to add relevance
for 21st century students
and teachers
Published in 2001, the
revision includes several
minor and major
changes.
The revised version of
the taxonomy is intended
for a much broader
audience.

16. Original Terms
New Terms
 Evaluation
•Creating
 Synthesis
•Evaluating
 Analysis
•Analysing
 Application
•Applying
 Comprehension
 Knowledge
•Understanding
•Remembering

17. Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised

Creating: Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing
things. Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing.

Evaluating: Justifying a decision or course of action. Checking,
hypothesising, critiquing, experimenting, judging

Analysing: Breaking information into parts to explore
understandings and relationships. Comparing, organising,
deconstructing, interrogating, finding

Applying: Using information in another familiar situation.
Implementing, carrying out, using, executing

Understanding: Explaining ideas or concepts. Interpreting,
summarising, paraphrasing, classifying, explaining

Remembering: Recalling information. Recognising, listing,
describing, retrieving, naming, finding

18. Bloom’s Taxonomy Revised

19. Creating
Green Hat, Construction Key, SCAMPER, Ridiculous
Key, Combination Key, Invention Key
Evaluating
Brick Wall Key, Decision Making Matrix, PMI,
Prioritising.
Analysing
Yellow Hat, Black Hat, Venn Diagram, Commonality
Key, Picture Key, Y Chart, Combination Key.
Applying
Blue Hat, Brainstorming, Different uses Key, Reverse
Listing Key, Flow Chart.
Understanding
Graphic Organisers, Variations Key, Reverse Listing,
PMI, Webs (Inspiration).
Remembering
White Hat, Alphabet Key, Graphic Organisers,
Acrostic, Listing, Brainstorming, Question Key.

21. ADDIE Model

The ADDIE model is used by instructional designers
and training developers. It is composed of five
phases






Analysis,
Design,
Development,
Implementation, and
Evaluation
Which represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for
building effective training and performance support
tools. This model attempts to save time and money
by catching problems while they are still easy to fix.

22. ADDIE Model

23. ADDIE Model :
A = Analysis

In analysis stage of ID process, want
to find out:

Who are the learners or audience


Audience analysis
What is the goal or intended outcome

Goal analysis

24. ADDIE Model :
D = Design

Content of the course


Steps of instruction


Subject matter analysis
Lesson planning-writing objectives
Type of media or presentation mode

Media selection

25. ADDIE Model :
D = Development

Development of instruction



Generate lesson plans (different from
lesson planning) and lesson materials.
Complete all media & materials for
instruction, and supporting documents.
End result is a course or workshop ready
for delivery.

26. ADDIE Model :
I = Implementation

The delivery of the instruction.


Purpose is effective & efficient delivery of
instruction.
Promote students’ understanding of
material & objectives, and ensure transfer
of knowledge.

27. ADDIE Model :
E = Evaluation

Two related evaluations going on
simultaneously in most ID situations.


Formative Evaluation
Summative Evaluation

28. ADDIE Model

29. The elusive origins of the
ADDIE Model


Remarkably it appears that the ADDIE
model wasn’t specifically developed by any
single author but rather to have evolved
informally through oral tradition.
The ADDIE Model is merely a colloquial
term used to describe a systematic
approach to instructional development.

30. ASSURE model







Analyze learners’ characteristics, competencies, and learning
styles
State objectives for what your lesson should accomplish
(ABCD format—audience/behavior/condition/degree)
Select, modify, and design methods, media, and materials
Utilize methods, media and materials—implement the lesson
Require learner participation in lesson
Evaluate learner outcomes with objectives and revise as
necessary
From “Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning”
by Robert Heinich, Michael Molenda, James D. Russell,
Sharon E. Smaldino

31. The ABCD Format





Audience: The audience is the group of individuals who are targeted for instruction.
While at first this seems straight forward, many times employees will ask “will I get
anything out of this training?” or “should I attend this training?” or “who is supposed to go
to this training?” Without a clear-cut audience in mind, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly
who gains from the training and who would be better served in a different class.
Behaviour: The behaviour element of the objective indicates the desired outcome of the
particular learning event. The behaviour will be stated in the following form “will be able
to detail properly” or “will be able to discuss the mechanism of action (MOA) with the
doctor.” The behaviour is what you want the person to be able to do as a result of the
training. It is important to clarify the behaviour because training programs can get off
track when the desired outcome of the training activity is not clearly defined.
Condition: The term “condition” describes circumstances under which the behaviour
should occur. An example would be “when calling on a doctor,” The condition describes
a trigger for the desired behaviour.
Degree: The term “degree” represents how well the employee must perform to be
considered acceptable. The degree of the objective is the measurable component.
Measures can be expressed as level of productivity, quantity, quality, time, internal or
external customer requirements, or other criteria gained from actual or anticipated work
practices.
From “Instructional Technology - A Systematic Approach to Education” by Frederick
G. Knirk, Kent L. Gustafson

32. Dick and Carey Model


The model was originally published in 1978
by Walter Dick and Lou Carey in their book
entitled “The Systematic Design of
Instruction”.
It champions a systems view of instruction
as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum
of isolated parts. The model addresses
instruction as an entire system, focusing on
the interrelationship between context,
content, learning and instruction.

33. Dick and Carey Model
Revise
Instruction
Conduct
Instructional
Analysis
Assess Need
to Identify
Goal(s)
Write
Performance
Objectives
Analyze
Learners and
Contexts
Develop
Assessment
Instruments
Develop
Instructional
Strategy
Develop
And Select
Instructional
Materials
Design and
Conduct
Formative
Evaluation
Design and
Conduct
Summative
Evaluation

34. Tripp and Bichelmeyer


Design that occurs in a rapid
prototyping environment, when
prototyping is specifically used as a
method for instructional design.
The analysis of needs and content
depends in part upon the knowledge
that is gained by actually building and
using a prototype instructional system.

35. Tripp and Bichelmeyer

Tripp,Steven, Bichelmeyer,Barbara, Rapid prototyping: An alternative
instructional design strategy, Educational Technology Research and
Development, 38, 1, 3/18/1990, Pages 31-44

36. Tripp and Bichelmeyer

Diagram needs additions

37. Other Macro Models

There are many other macro models
of instructional design, we won’t go
into them, but I’ve included a few
pictures for your viewing pleasure.

38. Hannafin & Peck Model

39. Knirk & Gustafson Model

40. Jerrold Kemp Model

41. Gerlach-Ely Model

42. Ausubel’s Assimilation Theory

43. Gilly Salmon


Professor of elearning and
Learning
Technologies at the
University of
Leicester
She has research
degrees in both
change management
and educational
technology.

44. Gilly Salmon’s Five Stage
Model of E-learning

Models of on-line learning are still
being developed and one model
presented by Gilly Salmon (2000) and
describing an individual learners
experience is presented here:

45. Stage 1:
Access and Motivation

Student Activities

Setting up system and accessing

46. Stage 1:
Access and Motivation

Tutor Activities


Welcome and encouragement
Guidance on where to find technical
support

47. Stage 2:
On-line socialization

Student Activities

Sending and receiving messages

48. Stage 2:
On-line socialization

Tutor Activities




Introductions
Ice-breakers
Ground rules
Netiquette

49. Stage 3:
Information exchange

Student Activities


Carrying out activities
Reporting and discussing findings

50. Stage 3:
Information exchange

Tutor Activities





Facilitate structured activities
Assign roles and responsibilities
Support use of learning materials
Encourage discussions
Summarize findings and/or outcomes

51. Stage 4:
Knowledge construction

Student Activities




Conferencing
Course-related discussions
Critical thinking applied to subject
material
Making connections between models and
work-based learning experiences

52. Stage 4:
Knowledge construction

Tutor Activities





Facilitate open activities
Facilitate the process
Asking questions
Encourage reflection.
Tutor is very active at this stage.

53. Stage 5:
Development

Student Activities




Use of conferencing in a strategic way
Integration of CMC into other forms of
learning
Reflection on learning processes
Students become critical of the medium

54. Stage 5:
Development

Tutor Activities




Support
Respond only when required
Encourage reflection
Tutor is less active and hands over to the
students

55. 5 Stages of eModeration

56. Alessi and Trollip Design and
Development Model
Based on these criteria,
Alessi and Trollip created
a model for developing
interactive multimedia
materials that has three
attributes: standards,
ongoing evaluation and
project management; and
three phases: planning,
design and development.
The model is illustrated as
below:

57. Instructional Design
Micro Models:
Lesson-level Design

58. Robert Mills Gagné






Born in Aug 21, 1916
Died in April 28, 2002
Born in in North Andover,
Massachusetts
educational psychologist
best known for his
“Conditions of Learning”
involved in applying
instructional theory to the
design of computer based
learning.

59. Gagné’s Nine Events of
Instruction
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Gain attention - Curiosity motivates students to learn.
Inform learners of objectives - These objectives should form the
basis for assessment.
Stimulate recall of prior learning - Associating new information with
prior knowledge can facilitate the learning process.
Present the content - This event of instruction is where the new
content is actually presented to the learner.
Provide “learning guidance” - use of examples, non-examples, case
studies, graphical representations, mnemonics, and analogies.
Elicit performance (practice) - Eliciting performance provides an
opportunity for learners to confirm their correct understanding, and the
repetition further increases the likelihood of retention.
Provide feedback - guidance and answers provided at this stage are
called formative feedback.
Assess performance - take a final assessment.
Enhance retention and transfer to the job - Effective education will
have a "performance" focus.

60. Gagné’s Nine Events of
Instruction

61. Charles M. Reigeluth

Elaboration Theory

instruction is made out of
layers and that each layer of
instruction elaborates on the
previously presented ideas.
By elaborating on the
previous ideal, it reiterates,
thereby improving retention





Present overview of simplest
and most fundamental ideas
Add complexity to one
aspect
Review the overview and
show relationships to the
details
Provide additional
elaboration of details
Provide additional summary
and synthesis

62. Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Organizing Course Structure: Single organisation for complete course
Simple to complex: start with simplest ideas, in the first lesson, and
then add elaborations in subsequent lessons.
Within-lesson sequence: general to detailed, simple to complex,
abstract to concrete.
Summarizers: content reviews presented in rule-example-practice
format
Synthesizers: Presentation devices that help the learner integrate
content elements into a meaningful whole and assimilate them into prior
knowledge, e.g. a concept hierarchy, a procedural flowchart or decision
table, or a cause-effect model .
Analogies: relate the content to learners' prior knowledge, use multiple
analogies, especially with a highly divergent group of learners.
Cognitive strategies: variety of cues - pictures, diagrams, mnemonics,
etc. - can trigger cognitive strategies needed for processing of material.
Learner control: Learners are encouraged to exercise control over
both content and instructional strategy. Clear labelling and separation of
strategy components facilitates effective learner control of those
components.

63. Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory

64. First Principles of Instruction


Created by M. David
Merrill
Created with the goal of
establishing a set of
principles upon which
all instructional theories
and models are in
general agreement, and
several authors
acknowledge the
fundamental nature of
these principles.

65. First Principles of Instruction
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Task/Problem-Centered
Activation
Demonstration
Application
Integration

66. First Principles of Instruction

1. Task/Problem-Centered

Students learn more when the instruction is
centered on relevant real-world tasks or
problems, including a series of tasks or
problems that progress from simple to complex.

67. First Principles of Instruction

2. Activation


Students learn more when they are directed to
recall prior knowledge, to recall a structure for
organizing that knowledge, or are given a
structure for organizing new knowledge.
This activation can also include a foundational
learning experience upon which new learning
can be based.

68. First Principles of Instruction

3. Demonstration



Students learn more when new knowledge is
demonstrated to them in the context of realworld tasks or problems.
The knowledge that is demonstrated is both
informational and skill-based.
Demonstration is enhanced when it adheres to
research-based principles of e-learning.

69. First Principles of Instruction

4. Application

Students learn more when they perform realworld tasks or solve real-world problems and
receive feedback on and appropriate guidance
during that application.

70. First Principles of Instruction

5. Integration

Students learn more when they are encouraged
to integrate their new knowledge into their life
through reflection, discussion, debate, and/or
presentation of new knowledge.

71. Component Display Theory

Component Display Theory (CDT)
classifies learning along two
dimensions:

content


facts, concepts, procedures, and principles
performance

remembering, using, generalities

72. Component Display Theory

The theory specifies that instruction is more
effective to the extent that it contains all
necessary primary and secondary forms.
Thus, a complete lesson would consist of
objective followed by some combination of
rules, examples, recall, practice, feedback,
helps and mnemonics appropriate to the
subject matter and learning task. Indeed,
the theory suggests that for a given
objective and learner, there is a unique
combination of presentation forms that
results in the most effective learning
experience.

73. Component Display Theory
Fact
Use
Find
Remember
Concept
Procedure
Principle

74. Component Display Theory
Fact
Concept
Procedure
Principle
Use
Identify or
Classify
Demonstrate –
How to
Explain why or
predict
Find
State or Define
State steps
State
relationship
Recall or
Recognise
definition or
example
Recall or
Recognise
steps or
example
Recall or
Recognise
principles or
example
Remember
Recall or
Recognise

75. Component Display Theory

76. ICARE model

Based on the Dick and Carey Model
and pioneered by San Diego State
University in 1997, the model has
found a place in the higher education
sector.

77. ICARE model





Introduce learners to what is to be learned
Content of lesson is presented to learner
involving active participation
Apply new knowledge and skills with
practical activities
Reflect on what has been learned
Extend learning of lesson by providing
alternative resources

78. ICARE model

79. Active Learning

an umbrella term that refers to several
models of instruction that focus the
responsibility of learning on learners.







Think-Pair-Share
The Pause Procedure
Fact Rounding
Network Phasing
Learning Cell
Active Writing
Team Quizzes

80. Active Learning

Think-Pair-Share




learners take a short amount of time (e.g. one minute) to
ponder the previous lesson,
Then they discuss it with one or more of their peers,
finally to share it with the class as part of a formal
discussion.
It is during this formal discussion that the instructor
should clarify misconceptions. However students
need a background in the subject matter to
converse in a meaningful way. Therefore a "think
pair share" exercise is useful in situations where
learners can identify and relate what they already
know to others.

81. Active Learning


The Pause Procedure
We know that even the most motivated student's
concentration declines after 10-15 minutes.
Teaching often requires students to play passive
roles and assume all students need the same
information at the same pace. By using three twominute pauses during the lecture (about every 13 to
18 minutes), the students are given the chance to
clarify, assimilate, and retain the information
presented during the prior mini-class. The pause
procedure can be used as a vehicle to carry into the
traditional class a variety of active and collaborative
learning structures.

82. Active Learning


The Pause Procedure
Examples of things do to during the 'pause' include;





Ask students to turn to their neighbour and summarize the main ideas
the instructor has just presented (e.g., List three major points in the last
lecture and one point you're confused on).
Ask students to read over their notes of the materials covered today and
put a question mark beside anything they want either clarification on or
more details on.
Ask students to take out a blank sheet of paper, pose a question (either
specific or open-ended), and give them one (or perhaps two - but not
many more) minute(s) to respond. Some sample questions include:
"What are the countries in Europe?", "What are 'Human Rights'?", "What
is the different between adverbs and adjectives?" and so on (“one
minute paper”).
Ask students "What was the 'muddiest point' in today's class?" or,
perhaps, you might be more specific, asking, for example: "What (if
anything) do you find unclear about the lesson?" listing topics.
Ask students to report their reactions to some facet of the course
material - i.e., to provide an emotional or evaluative response to the
material.

83. Active Learning


Fact Rounding
The Fact rounding technique works as
follows, towards the end of a lesson the
students are asked to recall one fact from
the material covered. Another student
should not repeat a fact already mentioned
and the activity should continue until all the
lesson material has been covered.

84. Active Learning

Network Phasing



The activity of Phasing starts off with three groups in its first Phase.
These groups will each be assigned a particular section of a larger
problem. All groups are then given a specific amount of time to work on
either fact finding or a solution or both. The time frame most suitable for
Phasing is two hours but the approach taken can vary depending on the
needs of the particular problem. After a given period of time the group
elect a leader to present their findings. From this short presentation the
students will learn about the different sections of the larger problem.
Phase 2 begins with the original groups being split in two halves and
those halves coming to form two new groups. This formation ensures
that all students get exposure to all areas of the larger problem. The two
new groups will have a new solution or facts to find. Phase 2 develops in
the same way as Phase 1 and the elected leader of each group present
the findings.
Phase 3 takes the form of a group discussion bringing the findings of
Phase 2 together to form the solution to the larger problem. This
discussion should be lead by the teacher to ensure the student’s findings
are correct and to give suggested improvements.

85. Active Learning


Learning Cell
A learning cell is a process of learning where two students
alternate asking and answering questions on commonly read
materials. To prepare for the assignment, the students will
read the assignment and write down questions that they have
about the reading. At the next class meeting, the teacher will
randomly put the students in pairs. The process begins by
designating one student from each group to begin by asking
one of their questions to the other. Once the two students
discuss the question. The other student will ask a question
and they will alternate accordingly. During this time, the
teacher is going around the class from group to group giving
feedback and answering questions. This system is also
referred to as a “student dyad” (or pair).

86. Active Learning


Active Writing
The Active Writing technique is used as follows;



at the end of the lesson students are asked to submit
questions based on the material covered.
These questions are used as an introduction to the next
lesson.
The purpose of this activity is to ensure that the
students will have their questions answered and to
reflect on the material. This activity is different to
the other because it is spreads across two separate
lessons. This technique can also be used to gauge
students’ understanding of a subject based on the
questions they submit.

87. Active Learning


Team Quizzes
The team quizzes activity divides the class into two
groups (Group A and Group B). The groups are
given an amount of time to generate questions on
the material covered. The teacher aims Group A’s
questions to Group B and visa versa. If the group
give the correct answer a point is awarded,
otherwise the other group must give the answer.
The purpose of this approach is to promote the
generation of well thought out questions and
answers.

88. Six Thinking Hats

89. Six Hats Instructional Model
BLUE:
Introduction and overview of topic
WHITE:
Facts and Figures about the Topic
YELLOW:
Positive outcomes of Topic
BLACK:
Negative outcomes of Topic
GREEN:
Interesting outcomes of Topic
RED:
Personal, emotional and people-oriented
aspects of topic
WHITE:
Review of new facts uncovered
BLUE:
Summary and finish up

90. Other Micro Techniques







Learning by teaching
Problem-based learning
Project-based learning
Inquiry-based learning
Action learning
Progressive inquiry
Service-learning

91. Quiz
Put these in order of importance on student
achievement;

92. Quiz
Put these in order of importance on student
achievement;

93. Lecturer influence
Quiz
Student influence
Put these in order of importance on student
achievement;