2. INTRODUCTION:
Pharmacognosy- It is a branch of Science dealing with crude drugs obtained from
natural sources.
• In broad sense, Pharmacognosy deals with the history, distribution, cultivation,
collection, preparation, identification, evaluation, preservation and uses of crude
drugs and their derivatives obtained mainly from Plants and animals.
• The word ‘Pharmacognosy’ derived from two Greek words- ‘Pharmacon’ means a
drug and ‘Gignosco’ means to acquire knowledge of.
• The word ‘Pharmacognosy’ was first coined by a German scientist “C. A. Seydler”
in 1815 in the title of his work “Analecta Pharmacognostica”.
3. HISTROY AND DEVELOPMENTS:
• History of Pharmacognosy- Divided in four parts
1. Primitive era- Pharmacognosy has been developed from ancient civilization who used
parts of plants and animals for healing, eliminate pain, control suffering and to treat
diseases. The primitive man tried to understand the rationale behind use of the crude drugs
and transfer his knowledge by mouth and later on by carving on to stones and clays and
then writing on parchment or paper.
2. Pre-Christian era- Chinese medicine is the oldest system of this era. Ayurveda also
described uses of medicinal plants and Charak samhita & Susruta samhita were compiled
during this phase. Papyrus ebers of Egypt described about 700 medicinal plants and
Theophrastus is known for his work on plant kingdom of this era.
4. 3. Era after Christ- Dioscoroides a Greek Physician, described a variety of medicinal plants in his
manuscript “De Materia Medica” in 78 AD. Many scientists work like Galen, Parcelsus, Willium
Turner, Le-Mary & Willium Withering is still known for their contribution in development of
Pharmacognosy. Dersone isolated Narcotine and Serturner isolated Morphine from Opium.
It was towards the start of the nineteenth century that pharmacognosy came into genuine being. In 1815,
C. A Seydler, a German scientist who utilized “ Pharmacognosy” In his book named Analecta
Pharmacognostica, Was referred to as the father of pharamacognosy.
4. Modern Pharmacognosy- Starting from 1815, there was rapid growth and development in subject of
Pharmacognosy along with growth of other subjects and development of modern techniques for plant
drugs. During this era Penicillin and Streptomycin antibiotic was isolated. A number of plant drugs were
also identified as potential curative agents for many serious diseases. For example- Vinca alkaloids
Vincristine and Vinblastine as anticancer, Reserpine as antihypertensive, Digitoxan and Digoxin as
cardiotonic and many more
5. SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY:
1. Pharmacognosy is critical in development of different disciplines of science.
2. A pharmacognosist should possess a sound knowledge of the terms used to describe the
vegetable and animal drugs as covered under botany, zoology respectively.
3. The knowledge of plant taxonomy, plant breeding, plant pathology and plant genetics is helpful
in the development of cultivation technology for medicinal and aromatic plants.
4. Plant chemistry (phytochemistry) has undergone significant development in recent years as a
distinct discipline.
5. It is concerned with the enormous variety of substances that are synthesized and accumulated by
plants and the structural elucidation of these substances.
6. Extraction, isolation, purification, and characterization of phytochemicals from natural
sources are important for advancement of medicine system.
6. 7. Extraction, isolation, purification, and characterization of phytochemicals from
natural sources are important for advancement of medicine system.
8. The knowledge of chemotaxonomy, biogenetic pathways for formation of
medicinally active primary and secondary metabolites, plant tissue culture and other
related fields is essential for complete understanding of pharmacognosy.
9.One should have the knowledge of biochemistry and chemical engineering is
essential for development of collection, processing, and storage technology of crude
drugs. 1) Pharmacognosy is important branch of pharmacy which is playing key role
in new drug discovery and development by using natural products.
7. Various sources of drugs
• Plants- Plant source is the oldest source of drugs. Most of the drugs in ancient times
were derived from plants. Almost all parts of the plants are used i.e. leaves, stem,
bark, fruits and roots etc. For example leaves of Digitalis purpurea are the source of
Digitoxin and Digoxin, which are cardiac glycosides.
• Animals- Pancreas is a source of Insulin, used in treatment of Diabetes. Sheep
thyroid is a source of thyroxin, used in hypertension. Cod liver is used as a source of
vitamin A and D. Blood of animals is used in preparation of vaccines. Cochineal
(dried full grown female insects) consists of carminic acid used as colouring agent
for foods, drugs and for cosmetic products.
8. • Plant Tissue Culture- It is in-vitro cultivation of plant cell or tissue
under aseptic and controlled environmental conditions, in liquid or on
semisolid well defined nutrient medium for the production of primary
and secondary metabolites or to regenerate plant. This technique affords
alternative solution to problems arising due to current rate of extinction
and decimation of flora and ecosystem. Applications are Production of
Phytopharmaceuticals, Biochemical Conversions Clonal Propagation
(Micro-propagation), Production of Immobilized Plant Cell and Sources
of drugs of natural origin.
9. • Marine Sources- The greater part of the earth surface is covered by seas and ocean, which
contains about 5,00,000 species of marine organisms. Many of these compounds have shown
pronounced biological activity. In the western medicine agar, alginic acid, carrageenan,
protamine sulphate, spermaceti & cod and halibut liver oils are the established marine
medicinal products. Macroalgae or seaweeds have been used as crude drugs in the treatment
of iodine deficiency states such as goiter, etc.
Various examples are
1. Anticancer drug- Bryostatins, Dolastatins, Ara-C
2. Anti-inflammatory drugs- Pseudoterosins, bi-indole, Manoalide
3. Cardio-vascular drugs- Anthopleurins, Laminine, Saxitoxin
4. Anthelmintic drugs- Kainic acid, Domoic acid
5. Antimicrobial drugs- Cephalosporin, Istamycin, Nitenin
10. Organized drugs, Unorganized drug
• Crude drugs- It means the natural substances from vegetable and animal
sources that have undergone no any processing other than collection and
drying. These are also called as Simples or Simple drug. These are of two
types
• Organized drugs
• Organised drugs consist of the cellular organization in the form of anatomical
features. These are mostly the crude drugs from plant sources. Almost all of
the morphological plant parts or the entire plant itself can be called as an
organized drugs .
• Eg. Cinchona bark, Sandalwood, Rauwolfia roots, Nux Vomica seeds
Microscopically and anatomical studies are preeminent for such drugs. These
can be used directly in medicine or can be used by modifying or by extracting
the active ingredient from it.
11. • Eg. Cinchona bark, Sandalwood, Rauwolfia roots, Nux Vomica seeds,
Vinca. Microscopically and anatomical studies are preeminent for such
drugs. These can be used directly in medicine or can be used by modifying
or by extracting the active ingredient from it.
12. • Unorganized drug
• The unorganized drugs do not have the morphological or anatomical organization
as such. These are the product which come directly in the market but their
ultimate source remains the plants, animals or mineral. Microscopical studies are
not required for such crude drugs.
• These includes products like plant exudates as gums, oleogums, oleogumresins,
plant lattices like that of opium, aloetic juices like aloes or dried extract of black
catechu, pale catechu, agar, alginic acid, etc., are products coming under this
group.
13. • Unorganised drugs can be classified upon their origin and nature such as.
1. Dried latex e.g. Opium
2. Dried juice e.g. Aloes
3. Extracts e.g Catechu (Black and pale catechu)
4. Gums e.g Acacia, trgacanth
5. Resins:
I. Gum resins e.g Myrrh
II. Oleo resin e.g Capsicum
6. Waxes e.g Beeswax
7. Oil e.g Castor oil, Wool fat.
14.
15. Dried latex
Opium
• Synonyms: Crude Opium; Raw Opium; Gum Opium; Afim; Post.
• Biological Source :
Opium is the air dried milky latex obtained by incision from the unripe capsules of Papaver
somniferum Linn, or its variety P. album Decand., belonging to family Papaveraceae.
• Geographical Source : It is mainly found in Turkey, Russia, Yugoslavia, Tasmania, India,
Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, China, Burma, Thailand and Laos. In India, Opium is cultivated
in M.P. (Neemuch) and U.P. for alkaloidal extraction and seed production.
16. • Cutivation and Collection
Opium is cultivated under license from the government. Its seeds are sown in October or March in alluvial soil.
After germination of seeds snow falls. In spring the thin plant attains the height of 15 cm. Fertilizers are used for
better crop. The poppy of first crop blossoms in April or May and the capsule mature in June or July. When the
capsules are about 4 cm in diameter, the colour changes from green to yellow; they are incised with a knife about
1 mm deep around the circumference between midday and evening. The knife, known as a ‘nushtur’ bears
narrow iron spikes which are drawn down the capsule to produce several longitudinal cuts. The incision must not
penetrate into the interior of the capsule otherwise latex will be lost. The latex tube opens into one another. The
latex, which is white in the beginning, immediately coagulates and turns brown. Next morning it is removed by
scrapping with a knife and transferred to a poppy leaf. Each capsule is cut several times at intervals of two or three
days. After collection the latex is placed in a tilted vessel so that the dark fluid which is not required may drain off.
By exposure to air the opium acquires a suitable consistency for packing. The dried latex is kneaded into balls,
wrapped in poppy leaves and dried in shade. The principal commercial varieties of Opium are Turkish Opium,
Indian Opium, Chinese Opium, Yugoslavian Opium and Persian Opium.
17.
18. • Description:
Opium occurs in rounded or flattened mass which is 8–15 cm in diameter
and weighing from 300 g to 2 kg each. The external surface is pale or
chocolate-brown, texture is uniform and slightly granular. It is plastic like
when fresh and turns hard and brittle after sometime. Fragment of poppy
leaves are present on the upper surface. Internal surface is coarsely granular,
reddish-brown, lustrous; odour is characteristic; taste is bitter and distinct.
Opium is intended only as a starting material for the manufacture of
galenical preparations and is not dispensed as such.
19. • Chemical constituents
• Opium contains about 35 alkaloids among which morphine (10–16%) is the most important base. The
alkaloids are combined with meconic acid. The other alkaloids isolated from the drug are codeine (0.8–
2.5%), narcotine, the-baine (0.5–2%). noscapine (4–8%), narceine and papaverine (0.5–2.5%). Morphine
contains a phenanthrene nucleus. The different types of alkaloids isolated are:
1. Morphine Type: Morphine, codeine, neopine, pseudo or oxymorphine, thebaine and porphyroxine.
2.Phthalide Isoquinoline Type: Hydrocotarnme, narcotoline, 1-narcotine, noscapine, oxynarcotine, narceine,
and 5’-O-demethyl-narcotine.
3. Benzyl Isoquinoline Type: Papaverine, dl-laudanine, lau-danidine, codamine and laudanosine.
4.Cryptopine Type: Protopine, cryptopine.
20. • Chemical Tests
Aqueous extract of Opium with FeCl3 solution gives deep reddish purple colour which
persists on addition of HCl. It indicates the presence of meconic acid.
Morphine gives dark violet colour with conc. H2SO4 and formaldehyde.
• Uses:
Opium and morphine have narcotic, analgesic and sedative action and used to relieve pain,
diarrhoea dysentery and cough. Poppy capsules are astringent, somniferous, soporific,
sedative and narcotic and used as anodyne and emollient. Codeine is mild sedative and is
employed in cough mixtures. Noscapine is not narcotic and has cough suppressant action
acting as a central antitussive drug. Papaverine has smooth muscle relaxant action and is used
to cure muscle spasms. Opium, morphine and the diacetyl derivative heroin, cause drug
addiction.
21. Dried juice
Aloe
• Synonym: Aloe, Musabbar, Kumari
• Biological source
Aloe is the dried juice collected by incision, from the bases of the leaves of various species of
Aloe. Aloe perryi Baker, Aloe vera Linn or Aloe barbadensis Mil and Aloe
ferox Miller., belonging to family Liliaceae.
• Geographical Source
Aloes are indigenous to East and South Africa, but have been introduced into the West Indies and
into tropical countries, and will even flourish in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean.
22. • Cultivation & Collection
• It is an evergreen perennial growing to 0.8 m by 1 m at a slow rate. The plant prefers light (sandy) and medium (loamy)
soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline)
soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought. They are xerophytic plant. It can be
propagated by seeds. Seeds are sown in the spring in a warm green house. The seed usually germinates in 1–6 months at
16°C. The seedlings are transferred to the pots containing well-drained soil. They are allowed to grow in sunny part for at
least their first two winters. The offsets will be available, usually in spring. The plants produce offsets quite freely and they
can be divided at any time of the year as long as it is warm enough to encourage fresh root growth to allow reestablishment
of the plants. Young offsets are planted in the soil after the rainy season in rows situated at a distance of 60 cm.
• In the second year leaves are collected by the natives by protecting their hands because of the spiny nature of leaves. The
leaves are cut near the base, kept inside of kerosene tins and taken them to a central place for the preparation of aloe. Juice
of aloe is present in parenchymatous cells of pericycle that are mucilage cells. In a single incision mucilage cells exert
pressure on pericycle cells and the entire juice from the leaves is drained out.
23. • Preparation of Aloe
• Curacao or barbados aloe:
In West Indies the cut leaves are arranged with their cut surface on the inner side, on the sides of V shaped vessel
of about 1–2 m long and the flowing juice is collected in a tin vessel that is placed below the V-shaped vessel This
juice thus collected is concentrated either by spontaneous evaporation, or more generally by boiling until it
becomes of the consistency of thick honey. These conditions favours the crystallization of barbaloin and this aloe
contains crystals of barbaloin because of the presence of which it becomes opaque and so also known as hepatic
or livery aloe. On cooling, it is then poured into gourds, boxes, or other convenient receptacles and solidifies.
• Socotrine aloe
When it is prepared, it is commonly poured into goat skins, and spontaneous evaporation is allowed for about a
month when it becomes viscous pasty mass which are then packed into cases. In European countries it is dried in
wooden pans with hot air till moisture is about 10%.
24. • Cape aloe
The leaves of the plants from which Cape aloe is obtained are cut off near the
stem and arranged around a hole in the ground, in which a sheep skin is spread,
with smooth side upwards. When a sufficient quantity of juice has drained from
the leaves it is concentrated by heat in iron cauldrons and subsequently poured
into boxes or skins in which it solidifies on cooling. Large quantities of the drug
are .exported from Cape Town and Mossel Bay.
25. • Description
• Curacao aloe is good quality vary in colour from yellowish or reddish brown to
chocolate brown, lower grades are black in colour and burtnt. It has intensely bitter
taste, strong penetrating odour like iodoform and has density about 1.33.
• Socotrine aloes are opaque, pasty or semisolid in nature, having brownish yellow
colour. It separate on standing into clear, dark brown, supernatant liquid and dark
yellow sediment which shows minute crytals of aloin under microscope
• Cape aloes it forms dark coloured masses which break with a clean glassy fracture
and exhibit in their splinters a yellowish, reddish-brown or greenish tinge. Its
translucent and glossy appearance are very characteristic and red-currant like odour
sufficiently distinguish it from all other varieties of Aloes.
26. • Chemical Constituent:
The most important constituents of Aloes are the three isomers of Aloins,
Barbaloin, β-barboloin and Isobarbaloin, which constitute the so-called
‘crystalline’Aloin, present in the drug at from 10 to 30%. Other constituents are
amor-phous Aloin, resin, emodin and Aloe-emodin. Barbaloin is present in all the
varieties; it is slightly yellow coloured, bitter, water soluble, crystalline
glycoside. Isobarbaloin is a crystalline substance, present in Curacao aloe and in
trace amount in Cape aloe and absent in Socotrine and Zanzibar aloe. The chief
constituents of Socotrine and Zanzibar aloe are Barbaloin and β-Barbaloin.
27. • Chemical Test:
Boil 1 gm of drug with 100 ml water, allow it to cool; add 1 gm kieselguhr, stir it well
and filter through filter paper.
Borax Test: Take 10 ml of aloe solution and to it add 0.5 gm of borax and heat; a green
coloured fluorescence is produced indicating the presence of aloe-emodin anthranol.
• Bromine Test: To 5 ml of aloe solution, add equal volume of bromine solution; bulky
yellow precipitate is formed due to the presence of tetrabromaloin.
• Nitrous Acid Test: To 5 ml of aloe solution, add little of sodium nitrite and few drops
of dilute acetic acid; it produces Pink or purplish colour. Zanzibar and Socotrine aloes
give negative test.
28. • Usess:
• The drug Aloes is one of the safest and stimulating purgatives, in higher doses may
act as abortifacient. Its action is exerted mainly on the large intestine; also it is
useful as a vermifuge. The plant is emmenagogue, emollient, stimu-lant, stomachic,
tonic and vulnerary. Extracts of the plant have antibacterial activity. The clear gel of
the leaf makes an excellent treatment for wounds, burns and other skin disorders,
placing a protective coat over the affected area, speeding up the rate of healing and
reducing the risk of infection. To obtain this gel, the leaves can be cut in half along
their length and the inner pulp rubbed over the affected area of skin. This has an
immediate soothing effect on all sorts of burns and other skin problems.
29. • Substituents and Adulterants
• I ) Natal Aloes: It is dull greenish black to dull brown in colour, opaque.
When scraped it gives a pale greyish green or a yellow powder. It can be
distinguished as it gives negative test to borax test and produces a deep
blue colour.
• II) Mocha Aloes : It is black colour, has strong odour, and it brittle and
inferior drug
30. Extracts
Extracts are prepared by evaporating aqueous decoction of plants e.g. Black catechu, pale catechu, Agar ets or by animal
sources by gelatin. In pharmacognosy, extracts are prepared by extraxting of plants with water followed by concentration,
whereas pharmaceuticals extracts are made by alcohol or hydro alcohol etc.
1. BLACK CATECHU
Synonym: Cutch, black catechu, kattha.
Biological Source : Black catechu is the dried aqueous extract prepared from the heartwood of Acacia catechu Willdenow,
belonging to family, Leguminosae.
Geographical Source: The plants used for the preparation of catechu are grown in Myanmar and India.
31. • Preparation of Catechu
• The trees are felled; bark and sapwood are stripped off from the trunk. Then the dark red heartwood is cutted
into chips and boiled with water into earthen vessels. The decoction obtained is strained. This strained liquid
is again boiled in iron vessels with continuous stirring until it gets syrupy consistency. The syrupy liquid is
allowed to cool. It is spread over leaves of Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxburgh, Cassia fistula Linn, etc.
which are arranged in a wooden frame or mould. It is kept overnight. Next morning the cutch will be dry and
forms brick-like masses weighing about 20 kg. These bricks are broken up for the market.
• In another method, the redwood obtained from the tree is cut into chips and kept into the extractor. Then
steam is passed through the drug for complete extraction. The extract is allowed to concentrate under
vacuum and cooling. The obtained concentrated extract is centrifuged. The kattha cakes will separate and be
moulded into different shapes and dried. By this method, the good quality of kattha is ready for market. The
cutch is obtained by concentrating the mother liquor left after centrifugation. The cutch is allowed to cool.
33. • Description
• Colour: Dull brownish to black.
• Odour: Odourless.
• Taste: Astringent and subsequently sweet.
• Size: Near about 2.0 cm × 5.0 cm.
• Shape: Cube like or brick-shaped pieces.
• Solubility: A brown magma forms with cold water but with boiling water, it
dissolves entirely and crystalline sediment is deposited upon cooling.
• Chemical Constituents: The chief constituents are catechu tannin acid (25-
33%) and acacatechin (10-12%). Other constituents are catechu red, gum,
quercitin and quercitrin.
34. • Chemical Test:
• When the drug is treated with vanillin and hydrochloric acid, it produces pink or red colour due to the presence of
catechin.
• Add ferric ammonium sulphate to the aqueous solution of the drug, green colour develops which turns to purple by the
addition of sodium hydroxide.
• To the aqueous solution of the drug, add lime water brown colour produced which turns into reddish precipitate after some
time.
• Test for catechin: Dip a matchstick in the test solution, dry it and moist it with concentrated hydrochloric acid. Then warm
the stick near flame. The colour of the wood changes to pink due to the formation of phloroglucinol..
Uses:
Cutch is used in medicine as astringent. It cures troubles of mouth, diseases of the throat and diarrhoea. It also
increases appetite. In India and eastern countries, it is used in betel leaves for chewing. In dyeing industries,
cutch I used for dyeing fabrics brown or black. It is also used in
35. 2. PALE CATECHU
• Synonyms: Gambier, pale catechu, catechu.
• Biological Source: Gambier or pale catechu is a dried aqueous extract
produced from the leaves and young twigs of Uncaria gambier Roxburgh.,
belonging to family Rubiaceae.
• Geographical Source:U. gambier is a native of erstwhile Malaya. It is
cultivated in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sumatra, Bornea, and Singapore at eleva-
tion up to 150 m. The plant is used mostly for the production of the drug, which
is marketed through Singapore.
36. • Cultivation, Collection, and Preparation
• The plantation is done in damp soil and at an altitude of 500 ft above sea level. The nursery-raised
seedlings of about 9 months are planted at about 3-meter distances in between. When the plant
reaches a height of about 2 meters coppicing has been done. From about eight years after plantation
to the twenty years age of the plant, the yield is at its maximum. The shoots are cut down with a
broad-bladed knife and put in a special type of vessel known as ‘Cauldron’ which is made of
hardwood with an iron bottom. The leaves and young shoots are boiled in ‘Cauldron’ for about
three hours with continuous stirring of the content. The decoction is evaporated till it becomes thick
and pasty with a yellowish-green colour. The contents are transferred into wooden tubs and allow
cooling. After about ten minutes the semi crystallized magma is poured into wooden trays to settle
down. It is cut into cubes with a wooden knife while the preparation is still moist and sun-dried.
Much amount of Gambier is filled into kerosene tins to solidify to obtain large blocks which are
marketed. The cube shape of Gambier is preferred for pharmaceutical purposes.
38. • Description :
• Chemical Constituents: The drug mainly contains (+)-catechin (7-33%),
catechu tannin acid (22-50%). Other constituents are catechu red, quercitin,
and gambier fluorescein, a fluorescent substance..
39.
40. • Chemical Test:
1. Dip a matchstick in the test solution, dry it and moist it with concentrated
hydrochloric acid. Then warm the stick near flame. The colour of the wood
changes to pink due to the formation of phloroglucinol.
2. When the drug is treated with vanillin and hydrochloric acid, it produces
pink or red colour due to the presence of catechin.
3. Add sodium hydroxide to the alcoholic extract of the drug and add a few
drops of petroleum ether in it, stir the solution, and kept it aside for some
time. Green fluorescence was observed in a layer of petroleum ether.
41. • Uses : It is used medicinally as an astringent in the treatment
of diarrhea and a local astringent in the form of lozenges. It is also used
for tanning and dyeing purposes.
• Adultration: The starch, astringent extracts, and mineral matters like
clay, ferric hydroxide, etc have been added as an adulterant.
42. Resin, Gum Resins and Oleo Resin
• Resins are amorphous products of complex chemical nature. They are simply extractions of plant
material, are taken either from the whole plant or from specific parts of the plant (bark of trees,
flowers of herbs, and buds of shrubs) depending on the availability and desired effect.
• Properties:
• Resins are transparent or translucent solids, semisolids, or liquid substances.
• They are brittle solid.
• They are fusible and flammable organic substances.
• They are not soluble in water but heavier than water.
• They are soluble in volatile oils, ether, and alcohol.
• They become harden when exposed to air.
• They are generally produced by woody plants.
• They do not play a role in the fundamental processes of the plant.
• When heated, they form a smoky flame.
43.
44. • Chemical Classification:
1. Acid Resins: They are mixtures of carboxylic acids, found in a tree. They have the basic
skeleton of three fused rings fused with the empirical formula C19H29COOH. Resin acids
are tacky, yellowish gums that are water-insoluble. They are used to produce
soaps.Examples: Abietic acid from Colophony, Commiphoric acid from Myrrh,
Alleuritic acid from Shellac, etc.
2. Ester Resins: Ester groups are present in the basic structure of the
resins.Examples: Benzyl benzoate in Benzoin, Cinnamyl cinnamate in Storax, etc.
3. Alcohol Resins: High molecular weight alcoholic group and present in the structure of
resins. They sometimes form complex and are found either in a free state or as ester
form.Examples: Peruresinotannol from Balsam of Peru, Guaicresinol from Guaiam,
Gurjuresinol from Gurjan etc.
45. • Other type of resins:
• Oleo Gum Resins: It is a solid plant exudation consisting of a mixture of volatile oil, gum, and
resin. It is a combination of oleo gum and resin. Therefore, an oleo-gum- resin has a nature that is
partially soluble in water and alcohol and looks oily. Examples: Asafoetida, Myrrh, Turmeric.
• Oleoresins: They are a concentrated liquid form of spice. Oleoresins can be defined as the true
essence of the spices and can replace whole/ground spices without impairing any flavor and aroma
characteristics. A naturally occurring mixture of essential oils and a resin, extracted from various
plants. They were obtained by extraction with a non-aqueous solvent followed by removal of the
solvent by evaporation and by supercritical fluid extraction. Examples: Copaiba, Ginger, Pine,
Balsam.
• Glycoresins: They are a combination of resin and sugar. Examples: Jalap resin from jalap,
Podophylloresin from dried roots, and rhizome from Podophyllum hexandrum, etc.
46. 1. Asafoetida
• Synonyms: Hing, Ferula.
• Biological source: It is an oleo gum resin obtained from the roots of Ferula
foetida Regel, F. Rubricaulis Boissier. Family: Umbelliferae.
• Geographical source: These plants are large and grow in Afghanistan,
Persia, and Central Asia.
47. • Collection and Preparation of Asafoetida
• Numerous large schizogenous ducts are filled with whitish, gummy resinous emulsion in the cortex of the stem
and root. After about five years the roots have stored sufficient reserve and is about thick at the crown. At the
end of March, the stems close to the crown are cut off. The exudate flows out from the cut surface and hardened.
The cut surface which oozes out the exudates is covered with a dome-like covering of sticks and leaves. The
hardened gum resin is scrapped off after a few weeks and again a cut is made to allow the juice to flow out. This
process is repeated many times with a time interval of about ten days until the plant ceases to produce latex. The
yield is about 1000 gm per plant. The collected drug is dried properly, packed in tin containers, and marketed.
Fig.1: Asafoetida plant and its tear form
48. • Description of Asafoetida
• Forms: Paste, tear (pure form) and mass bulk (block or lump).
• Shape: Tears are separate, rounded or flattened.
• Size: 0.5-4 cm in diameter.
• Colour: Dull yellow or dingy grey colour which changes into reddish-brown on storage.
• Odour: Intense, penetrating, persistent, alliaceous smell.
• Taste: Bitter, acrid and alliaceous.
• Mass asafoetida consist of tears agglutinated into less uniform mass and mixed with
extraneous substances like stones, earthy matter, calcium carbonate and root slices etc.
49. • Chemical Constituents of Asafoetida
• The main constituents are volatile oil (10-17%), resin (40-65%) and gum (1.5-10%). The resin consists of resene
(asaresene A) and volatile oil. It also contains 1.5 percent of free ferulic acid and 16 percent of an unstable ester
of ferulic acid with asaresinol. The volatile oil contains pinene and various disulphides (C7H14S2, C11H20S2,
C10H16S2). Ferulic acid yields umbellic acid, when it is treated with hydrochloric acid, loses water molecules and
forms umbelliferone. Free umbelliferone is absent in asafoetida.
50. • Chemical Test of Asafoetida
1. Reddish-brown colour develops upon the addition of sulphuric acid on the fractured surface of
the drug.
2. A yellowish-orange emulsion forms when asafoetida is triturated with water.
3. When the drug is treated with nitric acid green colour appears.
4. Take 0.5 gm of drug and triturate it with sand and hydrochloric acid, add a little quantity of water
and filter it. To the filtrate add ammonia blue fluorescence develops which shows the presence of
umbelliferone.
Uses of Asafoetida
It is a powerful nervine tonic, used in the treatment of Hysteria, bowel stimulant, expel flatulence,
relieves constipation and flavouring agent.
51. • Allied Drug
• Galbanum (Ferula galbaniflua) is an oleo gum resin used as an allied
drug. The distinction between galbanum and asafoetida is the presence of
free umbelliferone. Galbanum contains free umbelliferone whereas
asafoetida does not contain umbelliferone in free form.
• Asafoetida is also adulterated with red clay, wheat flour, chalk and gum
acacia.
52. 2. Myrrh
• Synonyms: Gum Myrrh, Commiphora, Bissabol
• Biological Source: It is a gum resin obtained from the stem of Commiphora molmol Engier.
Family: Burseracae.
• Geographical source: It is mainly collected from Somaliland in the north east of Africa and
south of Arabia.
• Collection and PreparationThe oleo gum resin is collected into lysigenous cavities. The
schizogenous ducts form lysigenous cavity by the breakdown of bark. The gum exudes out
upon the wounding of bark and changes its colour from yellowish-white to reddish-brown and
forms a hard mass. The gum is collected on goatskin and marketed.
53. • Description of Myrrh
• Shape: Irregular rounded tears
• Size: 2.5 to 10 cm in diameter.
• Texture: Rough, dull, and dusty surface.
• Fracture: Brittle, granular fracture.
• Colour: Reddish brown.
• Odour: Agreeable aromatic.
• Taste: Unpleasant, aromatic, bitter, acrid.
54. • Chemical Constituent
• The drug contains a mixture of resin (25%), volatile oil (2.5-6.5%), and
gum (60%). Along with these compounds, three free resin acids α, β, and
γ-Commiphoric acids, esters of resin acid, commiphorinic acid, two
phenolic resins α and β-heerabomyrrhol, volatile oil consist terpene,
cuminic aldehyde, and eugenol, etc.
55. • Chemical Test of Myrrh
1. A yellowish-brown emulsion forms upon trituration with water.
2. Take 0.1gm of drug and 0.5 gm sand, triturate it with ether and filter it. Evaporate the
filtrate and add bromine vapour, violet colour develops.
Uses of Myrrh
It has stimulant, antiseptic property, uterine stimulant, emmenagogue. Due to its astringent
property to a mucous membrane, it is also used for mouth wash and gargles.
Substituent and Adulterant
The substituents of myrrh are fadhli or Arabian myrrh, Yemen myrrh, perfumed bdellium or
bissabol, Indian bdellium, African bdellium and Gum hotai etc.
56. 3. Balsam of Peru
• Synonyms Peruvian Balsam; Indian Balsam; China oil; Black Balsam;
Honduras Balsam; Surnam Balsam; Peru Balsam; Balsa-mum peruvianum.
• Biological Source: Peru balsam is obtained by incision of the stem
of Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae (Royle) Klotsch at high
temperature, belonging to family Papilionaceae.
• Geographical Source: The plant is most widely found in Colombia,
Venezuela, Central America (San Salvador), in forests near Pacific coast and
cultivated in West Indies, Cuba, Florida, and Sri Lanka.
57. • Collection
• M. pereirae is a large tree, about 25 meters in height. Peru balsam is a pathological resin and is formed when the
plant is injured. The 10-years old tree is beaten on four sides in November or December. The cracked bark is
scorched with torch to separate it from the trunk. Within a week the bark is dropped from trunk and the balsam
begins to flow from the exposed wood. The injured part is covered with cloths or rags in which the resin is
absorbed. When the cloths are saturated with exudates, they are removed from time to time and boiled with
water. On cooling the water extracted balsam is settled out which is removed, strained, packed in tin cans, and
exported to get balsamo de trapo.
• The balsam produced in the bark is obtained by boiling the bark in water and is known as tacuasonte (prepared
without fire) or balsamo de cascara (balsam of the bark). By the removal of narrow strips of bark and the
replacement of scorching with the use of a hot iron the tree recovers in six months. The drug is chiefly exported
from Acajutla (San Salvador) and Belize (British Honduras) in tin container holding about 27 kg.
58. • Characteristics: Fresh Peru Balsam is a soft, yellow, viscous syrupy liquid,
or semisolid. On keeping it becomes dark brown, or nearly black, brittle solid.
It softens on heating in which crystals of cinnamic acid may be visible under
microscope, it does not stick, has an empyreumatic, aromatic, vanilla-like
odour, and a bitter, acrid, persistent taste. It is insoluble in water and olive oil
but soluble in alcohol, chloroform, and glacial acetic acid, usually with a
slight opalescense.
• The solution in alcohol (90%) becomes turbid on the addition of further
solvent. The relative density, 1.14–1.17, is a good indication of purity, and if
abnormal indicates adulteration with fixed oils, alcohol and kerosene.
59. • Chemical Constituents: The drug contains balsamic esters (45–70%) like
benzyl cinnamate (cinnamein), (50–60%), benzyl benzoate, and cinnamyl
cinnamate (styracin), resin (28%) consisting of peruresinotannol combined
with cinnamic and benzoic acids, alcohols [nerolidol (peruviol), farnesol,
and benzyl alcohol], and small amounts of vanillin and free cinnamic acid.
60. • Chemical Tests:
1. Its alcoholic solution gives green colour with ferric chloride.
2. TLC of its ethyl acetate shows two main spots of benzylic esters under UV light.
3. TLC sprayed with phosphomolybdic acid shows the presence of nerolidol.
4. It reacts with potassium permanganate to yield benzaldehyde.
• Uses:
Peru Balsam is used as miticide, to aid in healing of indolent wounds, as scabicide and parasiticide, in skin catarrh,
diarrhoea, ulcer therapy, as local protectant, and rubefacient. It is an antiseptic and vulnerary and as a stimulating
expectorant. It is also employed in perfumery and some chocolate flavourings, also in making of odours.
Peruvian Balsam is topically used as an antiseptic to treat burns, frostbites, cracks, erythema, pruritus, ulcers, and
wounds. Its suppositories are used to cure pain, pruritus, piles, and other anal disorders. It is an ingredient in cosmetic
and hygiene products (soups, creams, lotions, detergents) and in fixative. It can cause contact dermatitis in some people.
61. 4. Balsam Of Tolu
• Synonyms: Tolu Balsam; Thomas balsam; opobalsam; resin tolu; balsam of tolu;
balsamum tolutanum.
• Biological Source:Tolu Balsam is obtained by incision of stem
of Myroxylon balsamum (L.) Harms., belonging to family Papilionaceae.
• Geographical Source:The plant grows in Colombia (near lower Magdalena and
Canca rivers), West Indies, Cuba, Venezuela, and Peru. The trees are cultivated in
the West Indies.
62. • Collection:Tolu Balsam is a pathological resin and is formed in trunk tissues as a result of
injuries. It is collected all the year except the period of heavy rains by making V-shaped
incisions in the bark and sap wood. Calabash cups are placed to receive the flow of balsam.
Many other incisions are made on higher portion on the trees. Collected balsam is
transferred into larger tin containers and exported.
• Characteristics : Tolu Balsam occurs as soft, yellowish-brown or brown, semisolid, or
plastic solid, transparent in thin layers, brittle when old, dried or kept in cold, odour
aromatic, and taste is aromatic, vanilla-like, and slightly pungent. It is insoluble in water and
petroleum ether; soluble in alcohol, benzene, chloroform, ether, glacial acetic acid, and
partially soluble in carbon disulphide and NaOH solution. On keeping it turns to a brown,
brittle solid. It softens on warming. Under microscopical examination shows crystals of
cinnamic acid, amorphous resin and vegetable debris.
63. • Chemical Tests:
1. Alcoholic solution of Balsam Tolu (1 g) gives green colour with ferric chloride due to toluresinotannols.
2. Alcoholic solution of Balsam Tolu is acidic to litmus paper.
3. To filtered solution of Balsam Tolu (1 g) in water (5 ml) aqueous potassium permanganate solution is
added and heated for 5–10 min. Odour of benzaldehyde is produced due to oxidation of cinnamic acid.
• Chemical Constituents:
Tolu Balsam contains resin (80%) which is a mixture of resin alcohols combined with cinnamic and benzoic
acids.
The aromatic acids are also present in free state in proportions 8–15%. The other constituents reported in the
drug are benzyl benzoate, benzyl cinnamate, vanillin, styrene, eugenol, ferulic acid, 1,2-diphenylethane
(bibenzyl), mono-and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, alcohols, and triterpenoids. Tolu Balsam contains 35 to 50%
of total balsamic acids calculated on the dry alcohol-soluble matter.
64. • Uses: Balsam of Tolu is used as an expectorant, stimulant, and antiseptic. It is
an ingredient of cough mixtures and compound benzoin tincture. It is also used
as a pleasant flavouring agent in medicinal syrups, confectionery, chewing
gums, and perfumery.
• Adulteration: Balsam of Tolu is mainly adulterated with colophony and
exhausted tolu balsam. In exhausted tolu balsam, the cinnamic acid is removed
previously by heating. The adulterant can be identified by heating it with water
and observing under microscope; crystals of cinnamic acid are not seen.
