Organic Name Reactions for the students and aspirants of Chemistry12th.pptx
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Chapter8 4thed 150409140901-conversion-gate01
1.
2. What Is Race?
The term race has been used to describe
things like;
• Skin color: the Caucasian “race”,
• Religion: the Jewish “race”
• Nationality: the British “race”
• Entire human species: the human
“race”
3. Race and Biology
• A race is a socially defined category, based
on real or perceived biological differences
between groups of people.
• Often, these people are singled out as
inferior or superior, on the basis of real or
alleged physical characteristics such as
skin color, hair texture, eye shape, or other
attributes.
• Race has little meaning biologically due to
interbreeding in the human population.
• From a biological standpoint, your blood
4. Race and Society
 Race is a socially constructed reality. Think about
current racial categories.
 African American
 White, Not-Hispanic
 Hispanic
 Asian/Pacific Islander
 Race Historically – The idea of different races as
belonging to distinguishable categories has existed
for hundreds of years.
 19th
Century: biologists grouped humans into 3
groups, Negroid, Mongoloid, and Caucasoid.
(Or…black, Asian, and white)
5. Race and History
• Racial classifications have changed
throughout history.
• Greece and Rome; Middle Ages;
Nineteenth Century
• U.S. Census show that these classifications
continue to change.
• Racial classifications and social realities are
linked in 3 ways
• Skin Color
• Racial purity is assumed to exist
• Categories of official racial classifications
6.
7. Characteristics of Ethnic
Groups
• An ethnic group is a collection of people
distinguished, by others or by themselves,
primarily on the basis of cultural or nationality
characteristics. (Everyone does not
necessarily identify with a particular ethnic
group)
• Unique cultural traits.
• A sense of community.
• A feeling of ethnocentrism.
• Ascribed membership from birth.
• Tendency to occupy a geographic area.
9. Defining Race and
Ethnicity (cont’d)
• Examples: The Jewish or Amish
• Symbolic ethnicity is an ethnic identity that
is only relevant on specific occasions and
does not significantly impact everyday life.
• Example: Irish Americans and celebrating St. Patrick’s Day
• Situational ethnicity is an ethnic identity
that can be either displayed or concealed
depending on its usefulness in a given
situation.
• Example: Native Americans and college tuition
11. Dominant and
Subordinate Groups
• Because the term minority group can be
confusing, some resources use the
following terms:
• A dominant group is one that is
advantaged and has superior resources
and rights in a society.
• A subordinate group is one whose
members are disadvantaged and
subjected to unequal treatment by the
dominant group and who regard
themselves as objects of collective
discrimination.
12. Racism
• Racism: A set of attitudes, beliefs, and
practices used to justify the superior
treatment of one racial or ethnic group
and the inferior treatment of another
racial or ethnic group.
• Racism is used to justify inequality, and
is often rooted in the assumption that
differences between groups are
genetic.
13. Prejudice
• Prejudice is an idea about the
characteristics of a group that is applied to all
members of that group, and is unlikely to
change regardless of the evidence against it.
• Prejudice often results from:
• Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to
regard one’s own culture and group as the
standard.
• Stereotypes are overgeneralizations
about the appearance, behavior, or other
characteristics of members of particular
categories.
14. Can we measure
prejudice?
• Some sociologists use the concept of
social distance to measure prejudice.
• This is the extent to which people are
willing to interact and establish
relationships with members of racial
and ethnic groups other than their own.
15. Discrimination
• Discrimination is unequal treatment of
individuals based on their membership in a
social group; usually motivated by prejudice.
17. Four Major Types of
Discrimination
1. Isolate discrimination
• Example: A prejudiced judge giving
harsher sentences to African American
defendants.
1. Small-group discrimination
• Example: Small group of white students
defacing a professor’s office with racist
epithets.
18. Four Major Types of
Discrimination
3. Direct institutionalized
discrimination
• Example: Intentional exclusion of
people of color from public
accommodations.
3. Indirect institutionalized
discrimination
• Example: Special education classes
may have contributed to racial
stereotyping.
24. Theories of Prejudice:
Frustration–aggression
Hypothesis
• People who are frustrated in their
efforts to achieve a highly desired goal
will respond with a pattern of
aggression toward others.
• Scapegoat— a person or group that is
incapable of offering resistance to the
hostility or aggression of others
25. Theories of Prejudice:
Authoritarian Personality
Hypothesis
• The Authoritarian personality is
characterized by excessive conformity,
submissiveness to authority,
intolerance, insecurity, a high level of
superstition, and rigid, stereotypic
thinking.
26. Contact Hypothesis
Contact between divergent groups
should be positive as long as group
members:
• Have equal status.
• Pursue the same goals.
• Cooperate with one another to achieve
goals.
• Receive positive feedback while
interacting.
27. Critical Race Theory
• Derives its foundation from the U.S. civil
rights tradition.
• Premises:
• The belief that racism is such an ingrained
feature of U.S. society that it appears to
be ordinary and natural to many people.
• The belief that interest convergence is a
crucial factor in bringing about social
change.
43. Growing Racial and Ethnic
Diversity in the U.S.
• In 1980 white Americans made up 80%
of the population.
• In 2000, white Americans made up
70% of the population.
• By 2056, the roots of the average U.S.
resident will be in Africa, Asia, Hispanic
countries, the Pacific Islands, or Arabia
—not white Europe.
44.
45. Odds of Being a Pro Athlete by
Race/Ethnicity and Sport
White
African
American Latino/a
Football
1 in
62,500
1 in 47,600 1 in 2,500,000
Baseball
1 in
83,300
1 in
333,300
1 in 500,000
Basketball
1 in
357,100
1 in
153,800
1 in
33,300,000
47. 47
What Is Race?
• Race is a socially defined
category, based on real or
perceived biological differences
between groups of people.
48. 48
What Is Ethnicity?
• Ethnicity is a socially defined
category based on common
language, religion, nationality,
history, or another cultural
factor.
49. 49
Defining Race and
Ethnicity
• Sociologists see race and ethnicity as
social constructions because:
• Race isn’t based on biology (for instance,
we don’t test DNA to determine race).
• Racial categories change over time.
• Racial categories never have firm
boundaries.
50. 50
Race and Ethnicity
• The distinction between race
and ethnicity is important
because ethnicity can be
displayed or hidden, depending
on individual preferences, while
racial identities are always on
display.
51. 51
Ethnicity
• Symbolic ethnicity is an ethnic
identity that is only relevant on specific
occasions and does not significantly
impact everyday life.
• Situational ethnicity is an ethnic
identity that can be either displayed or
concealed, depending on its usefulness
in a given situation.
54. 54
What Is a Minority?
• A minority group is a social group that
is systematically denied access to
power and resources available to the
dominant groups of a society.
• It is not necessarily fewer in number
than the dominant group.
55. 55
Racism
• Racism: a set of beliefs about the
superiority of one racial or ethnic
group
• Used to justify inequality
• Often rooted in the assumption that
differences between groups are
genetic
56. 56
Prejudice and
Discrimination
• Prejudice (a thought process):
• An idea about the characteristics of a
group
• Applied to all members of that group
• Unlikely to change regardless of the
evidence against it
• Discrimination (an action):
• Unequal treatment of individuals because
of their social group
• Usually motivated by prejudice
57. 57
Types of Discrimination
• Individual discrimination is
discrimination carried out by one
person against another.
• Institutional discrimination is
systematic discrimination carried out by
social institutions (political, economic,
educational, and others) that affects all
members of a group who come into
contact with it.
58. 58
Race in America:
Theoretical Approaches
• Functionalist theorists
• Focus on the ways that race creates social
ties and strengthens group bonds
• Acknowledge that such ties can lead to
violence and social conflict between
groups
59. 59
Race in America:
Theoretical Approaches
(con’t.)
• Conflict theory
• Focuses on the struggle for power and
control over scarce resources
60. 60
Race in America:
Theoretical Approaches
(con’t.)
• Symbolic Interactionists
• Focus on the ways that race, class, and
gender intersect to produce an individual’s
identity
• See race as an aspect of identity
established through interaction
61. 61
Race in America:
Theoretical Approaches
(con’t.)
• Racial passing, or living as if one is a
member of a different racial category,
has a long history in the United States.
62. 62
Race, Ethnicity, and Life
Chances
• Race and ethnicity influence all aspects
of our lives, including health, education,
work, family, and interactions with the
criminal justice system and health care.
64. 64
Race, Ethnicity, and Life
Chances (cont’d.)
• In U.S. education, the highest high
school dropout rates are associated
with those from economically
disadvantaged and non-English-
speaking backgrounds.
66. 66
Race, Ethnicity, and Life
Chances (cont’d.)
• Inequality can also be seen in the
workplace and in income distribution.
• People of color, who are less likely to
achieve high levels of education, are
more likely to have lower-paying jobs.
67. 67
Race, Ethnicity, and Life
Chances (cont’d.)
• Also, nonwhites are more likely to
interact with law enforcement.
68. 68
Race Relations: Conflict
or Cooperation
• Genocide is the deliberate and
systematic extermination of a racial,
ethnic, national, or cultural group.
• Population transfer is the forcible
removal of a group of people from the
territory they have occupied.
69. 69
Race Relations: Conflict
or Cooperation (cont’d.)
• Internal colonialism is the economic
and political domination and
subjugation of the minority group by the
controlling group within a nation.
• Segregation is the formal and legal
separation of groups by race or
ethnicity.
70. 70
Race Relations: Conflict
or Cooperation (cont’d.)
• Assimilation: the minority group is
absorbed into the mainstream or
dominant group, making society more
homogeneous.
• Racial assimilation: racial minority
groups are absorbed into the dominant
group through intermarriage.
• Cultural assimilation: racial or ethnic
groups are absorbed into the dominant
group by adopting the dominant group’s
culture.
71. 71
Race Relations: Conflict
or Cooperation (cont’d.)
• Pluralism (or multiculturalism) is a
pattern of intergroup relations that
encourage racial and ethnic variation
within a society.
72. 72
A socially defined category based on common
language, religion, nationality, history, or
another cultural factor is called:
a. ethnicity.
b. symbolic ethnicity.
c. symbolic race.
d. race.
Race and Ethnicity—
Concept Quiz
73. 73
The unequal treatment of individuals because
of their social group is called:
a. racism.
b. discrimination.
c. prejudice.
d. institutional racism.
Race and Ethnicity—
Concept Quiz
74. 74
Light-skinned African Americans who attempt to
live as white in order to avoid the
consequences of being black in a racist society
are practicing:
a. racial passing.
b. social fraud.
c. ethnic cleansing.
d. symbolic racism.
Race and Ethnicity—
Concept Quiz
75. 75
__________ is an idea about the
characteristics of a group.
a. Prejudice
b. Assimilation
c. Discrimination
d. Stereotyping
Race and Ethnicity—
Concept Quiz
76. 76
The pattern of intergroup relations that
encourages racial and ethnic variation within a
society is called:
a. pluralism.
b. segregation.
c. population transfer.
d. assimilation.
Race and Ethnicity—
Concept Quiz
African Americans and Hispanics are much more likely to go to prison than whites. African Americans are also far more likely to be murdered than whites. Also, more than two-thirds of racially motivated hate crimes in 2003 targeted blacks. Is this because nonwhites are more violent and commit more crimes, or is it because, for instance, the police are more likely to patrol inner-city areas than gated communities?
You may ask students if they have heard of the phenomena called “driving while black.” Students may be able to articulate, just from reading the paper or watching the news, that it is more likely for a black person to be pulled over or arrested than for people of other races. If this phenomena is accurate, what does that mean for black individuals who interact with this system?
Humans, regardless of their race, are 99.9% genetically identical. However, race is still used to classify people, and sometimes race is a basis for differential treatment of individuals or groups of people. Sociologists, then, have come to understand race as a social category, based on real or perceived biological differences between groups of people. Race is more meaningful to us on a social level than it is on a biological level.
The Amish, for instance, are a distinct ethnic group in American society, linked by a common heritage that includes language, religion, and history; the Amish people, with few exceptions, are also white. On the other hand, the Jewish people, contrary to what the Nazis and other white supremacists may believe, are an ethnic group, but not a race. Ethnicity and race are sometimes related, but they are not inextricably linked.
Race isn’t based on biology (for instance, we don’t test DNA to determine race).
Racial categories change over time. If you look at the U.S. census you will see that the categories of races change very frequently. In fact, 2000 was the first year that respondents were allowed to select “one or more race” in the racial category. Prior to 2000, respondents were forced to select only one race, even if they would describe themselves as bi- or multiracial.
Racial categories never have firm boundaries. Instead, the boundaries defining racial categories are flexible. For example, there is no set regulation for determining racial identity. A person may have ancestry from mixed descent yet may not identify with that descent. Or a person who was born in the United States, whose parents and grandparents were also born in the United States, might classify him- or herself as Cuban because a great-grandparent was from Cuba.
Despite the fact that these immigrants weren’t considered “white” upon their arrival, after a period of time, many of these immigrants learned to “speak like Americans” and took on an outwardly American lifestyle. They were able to hide their ethnicity as a way to alleviate the tension caused by cultural clashes and bigotry against them.
You may have a friend whom you’ve met recently who surprised you because you had no idea that she was of Irish heritage until St. Patrick’s Day, when she proudly displayed her ethnicity. This ethnicity may not impact her day-to-day life, but it becomes relevant in this occasion. This is an example of symbolic identity.
Situational identity may not be relevant on a certain date, but rather, based on a certain situation. For example, if you are of a certain ethnicity and you know that your employer is prejudiced against people of your ethnicity, you may choose to not disclose your identity in an effort to preserve your job. However, when you are applying for financial aid at college and you see that there is a scholarship available for someone with your ethnicity, you may choose to reveal your ethnic identity in this potentially beneficial situation.
In South Africa, however, blacks dramatically outnumber whites by a ratio of 7 to 1, yet before the 1994 election of President Nelson Mandela, whites controlled the country whereas blacks occupied the lowest status in that society. Minority does not mean numerically inferior; it refers to the group that has less access to resources or power. However, it is interesting to note that the unequal and unfair treatment of the minority group typically generates a strong sense of common identity and solidarity among group members.
Sometimes people argue that racism is no longer an issue in the United States. It is true that our race relations have changed, but many sociologists argue that racism has not been eliminated. In the past, it was socially acceptable in many places to display racist attitudes and to use racial slurs. That’s not politically correct or acceptable anymore, so people tend to reserve their attitudes until they know they are in like-minded company; however, this in no way means that racism has been eliminated. It’s just more difficult sometimes to identify, which, many argue, is actually worse.
It is important to distinguish between prejudice and discrimination. Prejudice is an internal evaluation, and discrimination is an action. While it makes sense to see these things as happening chronologically or in order, it is important to know that that’s not always the case. Some people may be prejudiced yet not discriminate against individuals. Others may discriminate yet not be prejudiced (for instance, a manager may refuse to hire Chinese people because other people in the office don’t like them, even though the manager himself doesn’t actually dislike Chinese people at all).
While any kind of discrimination is problematic, institutional discrimination is bigger than individual discrimination and more difficult to address. Individual discrimination is a type of discrimination by one individual against another. Institutional discrimination refers to a structural disadvantage for an entire group of individuals based on their group membership. Institutional discrimination is often more difficult to observe because it is not just one person acting against another. It might instead be embedded in policies, rules, traditions, or beliefs, and usually no one person can be held accountable. Therefore, eliminating institutional discrimination is a significantly more challenging task than eliminating individual discrimination..
Functionalist theory states that racial and ethnic differences are a necessary part of society. Even racial inequality has functions that help maintain social order.
Early conflict theorists tried to explain race as a result of economic oppression. The theory states that racial and ethnic differences create intergroup conflict—minority and majority groups have different interests and may find themselves at odds as they attempt to secure and protect them.
There are several different ways that we project and receive our racial and ethnic identities. The theory states that race and ethnicity are part of our presentation of self.
The way that we are perceived in the physical world, our embodied identity, has historically been used as a basis for discrimination. This issue becomes particularly interesting today as we examine online communication, where our physical traits often remain hidden from those with whom we interact.
You may remind students of Max Weber’s idea of life chances, that our opportunities in life are different depending on the class into which we are born. We talked earlier about how race and gender intersect with class, so how could a person’s race affect their life chances?
Health care is an area in which we find widespread disparity between racial and ethnic groups. Disparities in access to health care may help explain the differing life expectancy rates for men and women of different races.
Maybe it is true that high school is harder for these individuals or that they are more likely to have to leave school due to family responsibility, but think about this from a structural perspective—isn’t there any way that the structure of the education system could be modified to encourage these individuals to complete their educations rather than dropping out? Could this be an example of institutional discrimination, where the structure of education systematically denies opportunities to those from economically disadvantaged and non-English-speaking backgrounds?
Inequality in education leads to further inequalities in life. For instance, it is harder to get a high-paying job without a higher level of education. Additionally, without a good job, it is harder to gain access to insurance and health care.
In 2004, the median U.S. income for whites was $34,164; for Asian Americans, $36,816; for African Americans, $27,300; and for Hispanics, $23,712.
African Americans and Hispanics are much more likely to go to prison than whites. African Americans are also far more likely to be murdered than whites. Also, more than two-thirds of racially motivated hate crimes in 2003 targeted blacks. Is this because nonwhites are more violent and commit more crimes, or is it because, for instance, the police are more likely to patrol inner-city areas than gated communities?
You may ask students if they have heard of the phenomena called “driving while black.” Students may be able to articulate, just from reading the paper or watching the news, that it is more likely for a black person to be pulled over or arrested than for people of other races. If this phenomena is accurate, what does that mean for black individuals who interact with this system?
Interactions between dominant and subordinate groups can take many different forms.
Can your students think of examples of genocide? Probably they will mention Nazi Germany. But how about within the United States?
The treatment of Native Americans is an example of population transfer.
Internal colonialism could be thought of in terms of slavery or indentured servitude.
As an example of segregation, in the U.S. South up to the 1960s, not only did blacks live in separate neighborhoods, they were restricted to “coloreds”-only sections of buses, parks, restaurants, and even drinking fountains.
Assimilation is the central idea behind America’s “melting pot.” Minority group members may lose their previous ethnic or racial identity.
Pluralism not only permits racial and ethnic variation within one society, it actually encourages people to embrace diversity— to exchange the traditional melting pot image for a “salad bowl.” At the core of multiculturalism is tolerance of racial and ethnic differences.
ANS: A
ANS: B
ANS: A
ANS: A
ANS: A
Mulberry Street at the Turn of the Century In the early 1900s, Irish, Italian, and Jewish immigrants were not considered “whites.” Because of residential segregation, new immigrants poured into densely populated neighborhoods like this one on New York’s Lower East Side where they had little choice but to live in squalid tenements and work in sweatshops.
Ethnic options We can display group membership by embracing ethnic identity on special occasions like St. Patrick’s Day or Cinco de Mayo (symbolic ethnicity) or in special situations (situational ethnicity).
Gran Torino
The Sweeter the Juice Shirlee Taylor Haizlip’s grandfather, who abandoned his family to live as a white man, is an example of racial passing.
Mildred and Richard Loving
The Complexities of Interracial Dating The network drama Parenthood features several storylines on interracial relationships, such as the high school romance of Hattie and Alex (pictured above).
Racial Identity: “More Than the Sum of Our Parts” President Barack Obama, left, listens to the inauguration ceremony at the U.S. Capitol on January 20, 2009. Behind Obama is his family, including wife Michelle, daughters Malia and Sasha, his sister Maya Soetoro-Ng and her husband Konrad Ng, and Obama’s mother-in-law Marian Robinson.
Alan Bakke
Figure 8.2 Americans without Health Insurance by Race, 2009 Disparities in access to health care adversely affect different groups.
SOURCE: DeNavas-Walt, Proctor & Smith 2010.
Figure 8.3 U.S. Bachelor’s Degree Holders by Race, 2009
SOURCE: U.S. Census Bureau 2009b.
Survivors of Genocide Holocaust survivor Ehud Valter, 79, displays the card documenting his transfer between the Auschwitz and Buchenwald concentration camps. Anna Karakian, 101, survived the mass killings of Armenians in 1915 in what was then the Ottoman Empire.
Jackie Robinson is most often cited as the first athlete to break the “color barrier” in professional sports when he made his debut in major league baseball in 1947.