1. Students with disabilities are increasing-
ly enrolled in postsecondary education,
yet many of them are not prepared to
cope with the rigor of higher education.
Students who do not have the skills of
self-empowerment often experience
frustration and discouragement in the
postsecondary setting, leading to their
dropping out of school and eventually
experiencing less positive outcomes. At
the same time, many higher education
faculty members are not aware of how
to work with students with disabilities,
nor are they familiar with policies relat-
ed to student rights and accommoda-
tions. There are some practical strate-
gies for faculty, as well as K–12 teach-
ers, to help students with and without
disabilities develop skills of self-advoca-
cy, self-regulation, internal locus of con-
trol, and self-knowledge—so they can
become empowered to take responsibil-
ity for their own learning.
According to the 2006 National Longi-
tudinal Transition Study (Wagner, New-
man, Cameto, Levine, & Garza, 2006),
the percentage of students with disabil-
ities completing high school increased
by 17% between 1987 and 2003, with a
corresponding 32% increase in enroll-
ment in some kind of postsecondary
schools (National Council on Disability,
2003; Wagner et al.). However, more
than half of these students are at risk of
failure (Jones, 2002; National Council
on Disability, 2003). The National
Council on Disability (2004) reports that
one of the major reasons for this high
dropout rate is that university students
with disabilities are not prepared to
cope with the rigor of postsecondary
education. Support services for transi-
tion between secondary schools and
higher education are often fragmented
and inconsistent in helping students
develop requisite skills for postsec-
ondary education (Dukes & Shaw, 1999;
Izzo, Hertzfeld, & Aaron, 2001; National
Council on Disability, 2004; Stodden,
Jones & Chang, 2002). In addition, there
is a lack of collaboration at the higher
education level between faculty and an
institution’s office of student services
when it comes to providing services to
help prepare students for disability-
related challenges they may encounter
in the postsecondary setting (Hitchings
et al., 2001; Izzo et al.; National Council
on Disability, 2004; Sitlington, Clark, &
Kolstoe, 2000).
Support services for transition
between secondary schools and
higher education are often
fragmented and inconsistent in
helping students develop
requisite skills for
postsecondary education.
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act
of 1973 requires students with disabili-
ties to disclose their disabilities to their
32 ■ COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
TEACHINGExceptionalChildren,Vol.40,No.1,pp.32-38.Copyright2007CEC.
Preparing
Students for
Postsecondary
Education
Barbara S. S. Hong
W. Fred Ivy
Humberto R. Gonzalez
Wendy Ehrensberger

2. institution if they wish to receive rea-
sonable accommodations. In postsec-
ondary education, classroom accommo-
dations are described as “appropriate
academic adjustments” (104.44(e)(a)).
Many higher education faculty have not
worked with people with disabilities,
and have received little preparation in
meeting their needs (National Council
on Disability, 2003). When students
with disabilities do disclose their dis-
abilities, oftentimes faculty members
simply do not have sufficient knowl-
edge to assist them. In fact, many par-
ents, students, faculty, and high school
counselors themselves are not aware of
the policy differences for students with
disabilities in terms of rights, services,
and funding as a result of IDEA, Section
504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973,
and the Americans With Disabilities Act
of 1990 (National Center for the Study
of Postsecondary Educational Supports,
NCSPES, 2002; Stodden, Conway, &
Chang, 2003).
It is not unusual for faculty members
to believe that students with disabilities
accepted into a university program must
have met the same admission require-
ments as all other students and should
have the skills to function and compete
on the same playing field. In fact, stu-
dents with disabilities often feel inse-
cure when they leave the traditional
classroom setting to enter higher educa-
tion (Hitchings et al., 2001; National
Council on Disability, 2004). Instruction
is at a faster pace, coursework requires
more reading, assignments demand
higher-order thinking, writing is more
technical, and study habits call for more
independent problem solving and self-
strategizing (Rosenbaum, 2004). Above
all, contact with the instructor is drasti-
cally reduced. All these factors combine
to create barriers and frustrations for
students who are not prepared or who
have not acquired sufficient self-regula-
tion skills (National Council on Dis-
ability, 2003).
Students with disabilities often
feel insecure when they leave the
traditional classroom setting to
enter higher education.
Currently, much concern is
expressed about students with disabili-
ties exiting high school with less posi-
tive outcomes (NCSPES, 2002; National
Council on Disability, 2003; Wagner et
al., 2006), and our attention is focused
on raising standards, hiring more quali-
fied teachers, and holding schools more
accountable. However, what seems to
have been neglected is helping students
with disabilities develop vital skills that
will enhance their prospect of success in
their next endeavor (Hicks-Coolick &
Kurtz, 1997; Milsom & Hartley, 2005;
Wehmeyer, 1996). This is particularly
imperative for students who decide to
pursue postsecondary education.
Studies (Izzo & Lamb, 2002; Lamb,
2002; NCSPES, 2002; Wagner et al.)
have revealed that many students with
disabilities enter college not knowing
how to communicate their needs (self-
advocacy); how to evaluate their own
performance (self-regulation); what it
means to have a sense of control (locus
of control); and their own strengths,
interests, and limitations (self-knowl-
edge). In short, they are not self-deter-
mined. Table 1 lists the essential com-
ponents of self-empowerment (cf.
Wehmeyer, 1995).
The term self-determination is often
used interchangeably with self-empow-
erment. Martin and Marshall (1995)
characterized people who are self-deter-
mined as those who:
Know how to choose—they know
what they want and how to get it.
From an awareness of personal
needs, self-determined individu-
als choose goals, and then
doggedly pursue them. This
involves asserting an individual’s
presence, making his or her needs
known, evaluating progress
toward meeting goals, adjusting
performance, and creating unique
approaches to solve problems.
(p. 147)
Both of these terms describe someone
who has developed a combination of
attitudes and abilities to set goals, make
decisions, problem-solve, self-advocate,
self-evaluate, and adjust in order to
TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ■ SEPT/OCT 2007 ■ 33
Table 1. Essential Components of Self-Empowerment
Self-Advocacy Self-Regulation Internal Locus of Control Self-Knowledge
✓ Personal autonomy
✓ Choice indicating
preferences
✓ Choice as a decision-
making process
✓ Choice as an expression of
autonomy and dignity
✓ Self-management
✓ Self-care
✓ Recreational and social
management
✓ Goal setting and
attainment
✓ Problem identification,
problem expectation,
problem resolution,
problem solving
✓ Self-observation
✓ Self-management
✓ Self-monitoring;
self-evaluation
✓ Self-instruction
✓ Self-reinforcement
✓ Positive attribution of
efficacy
✓ Outcome-expectation
✓ Efficacy-expectation
✓ Self-awareness
✓ Self-belief

3. achieve his or her goals. (See box,
“Attributes of a Self-Empowered Indi-
vidual”; cf. Field, Martin, Miller, Ward,
and Wehmeyer, 1998.)
Students with disabilities who have
not developed adequate skills of self-
empowerment are less lightly to be suc-
cessful in the postsecondary setting
(National Council on Disability, 2003).
Hence, it is imperative that faculty and
K–12 teachers are knowledgeable about
strategies for empowering students.
These suggestions are beneficial not
only for students with disabilities, but
also for all students. Instructors (higher
education faculty as well as K–12 teach-
ers) first need to understand the com-
mon challenges students with disabili-
ties face and how these difficulties cor-
relate to subsequent ability to cope with
the demands of higher education. This
article presents certain fundamental
pedagogical principles for maximizing
student engagement in learning,
whether in public schools or higher
education setting, and provides some
practical approaches for supporting and
facilitating self-empowerment of stu-
dents with disabilities.
Student Capability and
Demands of Higher Education
Whether in higher education or the
K–12 setting, students are expected to
perform multitask responsibilities such
as participating in class discussions,
paying attention to lectures, taking and
organizing notes, synthesizing new
information, staying focused, and
responding to instructor inquiries. For
many students with disabilities, multi-
tasking can be extremely challenging
and expecting them to do so is unrealis-
tic. When students discover there is a
problem in their learning or comprehen-
sion, they often do not know how to
“fix” it. They cannot identify the prob-
lem (self-regulation), determine what
kind of help they need (self-knowl-
edge), or identify where to obtain help
(self-advocacy). Over time, these stu-
dents become discouraged and frustrat-
ed and lose confidence in themselves
(internal locus of control). In order to
help these students develop adequate
skills of self-empowerment, instructors
must understand four common areas of
difficulty many students with disabili-
ties encounter, sometimes on a daily
basis (see Table 2).
In terms of cognitive ability, students
with disabilities generally are passive
learners (Rosenbaum, 2004); they do
not take initiative or actively strategize
learning habits that would help them
become successful. They tend to experi-
ence high levels of attention difficulties,
easily wander off task, and have a hard
time distinguishing pertinent informa-
tion from irrelevant data to enhance
content understanding. The problem of
passive learning is compounded by the
fact that many of these students enter
higher education with reading skills at
least three grades below their last grade
level (Sabornie & deBettencourt, 2004).
Many students do not see how attend-
ing class, paying attention to lectures,
doing assignments, and reading the text
can have an effect on the outcome of
the course (Rosenbaum). Given these
challenges, it’s no wonder so many stu-
dents with disabilities struggle to meet
high demands for content literacy, in-
depth analysis, critical synthesis, and
evaluative reading and writing assign-
ments.
Pedagogical Principles for
Maximizing Student Learning
It is not uncommon for many faculty or
K–12 teachers to be unaware of or be
unable to articulate best practices when
it comes to maximizing student learn-
ing. In order to determine what accom-
modation a student with a disability
needs and when appropriate and rea-
sonable assistance should be offered,
instructors must first be aware of the
student’s specific learning aptitudes and
attributes. Instructors can ask these
three essential questions to gauge
whether the student’s academic adjust-
ments are necessary and appropriate:
✓ To what extent can this student
meet the demands of the specific
task (prerequisite skills, knowledge
of content, and clarity of direction)?
✓ What is the student’s current level
of specific learning abilities to per-
form the task? Does the student
understand what is being taught
and is he or she able to use that
knowledge to perform the task?
34 ■ COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Attributes of a Self-Empowered Individual
• Knows how to differentiate one’s wants and needs.
• Makes choices based on one's preferences, interests, strengths, and
limitations.
• Sets goals and works toward goals.
• Considers options and anticipates consequences
because of one’s decision.
• Assumes responsibility for positive and
negative outcomes.
• Uses effective communication skills.
• Evaluates one’s decisions based on
outcomes of previous decisions.
• Revises future
decisions/plans/goals
based on previous
outcomes.
• Strives for independence while
recognizing one’s interdependence
with others.
• Uses self-advocacy skills.
• Is self-confident, persistent, and creative.

4. ✓ What is the student’s current func-
tioning level in strategies for learn-
ing the task? Does the student know
how to go about studying or mas-
tering the content knowledge neces-
sary to complete the task?
One of the most critical components
in facilitating student self-empower-
ment skills is to create a learning envi-
ronment where there is an optimal
amount of support and opportunity for
all learners, regardless of disability.
Carlson’s (1980) several general princi-
ples of learning and motivation have
been widely used by many practitioners
in creating such an environment.
Carlson suggests that once open and
honest communication is established,
learning should be made meaningful so
that students can relate what they are
learning to their background experience
and prior knowledge. Instructors should
be knowledgeable about specific prereq-
uisite skills and knowledge before
beginning instruction or scheduling
assignments. During lesson presenta-
tions, instructors should model the
process of formulating specific ques-
tions, which will assist students in the
development of proactive learning
habits. Carlson stresses creating an
environment that encourages students’
active participation in class discussions
and group activities. Instructors should
be mindful of the pace of instruction
when introducing new concepts and
assessing student understanding of
those concepts. Instructors can increase
students’ attention and motivation to
learn by employing novel ideas in lec-
tures, course activities, and assign-
TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ■ SEPT/OCT 2007 ■ 35
Table 2. Student Challenges and Impacts
Students with . . . Are less likely to . . . Are more likely to . . .
Poor problem-solving skills • Create and apply strategies to problem situations
• Ask questions to resolve concerns
• Advocate for own needs in order to solve problematic
situations
• Seek assistance from peers
• Initiate learning groups
Accept what is being offered,
even though services or
instruction may not be
appropriate, sufficient, or
correctly delivered
Poor evaluation skills • Consider prerequisite skills before attempting a task
• Be aware of their own limitations and capabilities in
handling various tasks
• Set goals or have realistic expectations
• Understand how to manage tasks (e.g., carrying more
credits than one can manage)
• Employ strategies to determine own progress
• Recognize own improvement or lack of progress
Rely on others to evaluate
how they are performing
Poor monitoring skills • Ask questions or recognize own lack of understanding
• Apply error-monitoring strategies to tasks
• Use rehearsal strategies to learn content
• Develop the steady study skills and learning habits
needed to perform higher-order-level tasks
• Reinforce or challenge self to make progress
• Adjust goals, strategies, or situations to improve self
Lack self-control, self-
discipline, and self-
management
Poor communication skills • Verbalize own needs
• Develop effective speaking, negotiating, and
conversational skills
• Volunteer to lead a discussion, share different points of
view, or inquire further for deeper understanding
• Know “who” they are and their own preferences, beliefs,
and thoughts
• Be confident in themselves
• Take on leadership roles
• Be creative
• Be persistent in pursuing questions not understood
Let others direct their lives

5. 36 ■ COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN
Table 3. Strategies for Empowering Students
Help students obtain
timely and appropriate
services
• Provide pertinent and timely information (e.g., syllabus, textbook title, test dates, criteria for course
completion, rubrics) to enable students to request needed services/accommodations (e.g., reader, note
taker, scribe, sign language interpreter, extended time, Braille embosser, software speech synthesizer, tape
recorder, other assistive technology).
• Help students understand their responsibilities to identify what services are provided at the institution
and to request accommodations at the beginning of the term. (Providing them pertinent information
before the course begins gives students enough time to obtain materials or arrange services.)
• Respect student confidentiality rights and nondisclosure; do not discuss their disabilities and
accommodations with other instructors or students.
• Do not discourage students from participating in any course activity or assignment due to a lack of
services.
• Encourage students to advocate for their right to reasonable accommodation. Model how to effectively
communicate needs to instructors and student services.
Plan instruction
that develops self-
regulatory behaviors
• Be consistent and clear about what is expected of students for individual assignments, assignment
deadlines, and the grading of individual assignments. Specify standards for assessing assignments via
rubrics to permit students to better understand how their work is measured and whether they are
meeting expectations. Provide examples of past assignments that met target expectations and those that
did not so students have a better idea of what is expected. Help students understand that all student
coursework is graded by the same measures, but that the instructor is available to assist them.
• Be flexible. Within set guidelines, allow students to meet course requirements via alternate modes of
presentation or to make up work, instead of rigidly sticking to the original syllabus. This helps students
to solve their own problems, generate realistic options, anticipate consequences for their decisions, and
develop a sense of self-efficacy.
• Divide complicated assignments into smaller units, so that students can monitor their progress.
• Encourage students to participate; do not penalize those who are not comfortable speaking out in class.
Provide students ample opportunities to learn how to verbalize their thoughts, express their opinions,
share their perspectives, and defend their ideas.
• Utilize case studies and experiential learning relevant to student backgrounds, training, and interests
so they can meaningfully relate what they are learning to what they already know. Students learn to use
self-instruction and self-directing techniques to regulate their own learning.
• Never make students feel they are not capable of making decisions because of their disability. Create
opportunities that encourage students to choose when, how, where, and with whom they will complete
an activity.
• Allow room for trial and error during guided practice and before an assignment is taken home or is due.
• Address student grievances, confusion, and conflicts. Students may not know how to resolve their
school problems, what questions are considered appropriate, or how an instructor will react to their
concerns. Students may not want to voice an opinion for fear of jeopardizing their grade.
Integrate essential
study and learning
skills
• Acknowledge students’ successful strategies in memorizing, reading, analyzing, and answering
questions, and help them generalize and transfer these strategies to another course or activity. Encourage
students to share successful strategies so that everyone can examine alternative ways to approach a task.
This not only helps students learn to take constructive feedback from others, but also enables them to
verbalize what works and what does not work in their own learning habits.
• Provide a checklist or chart for students who need visual assistance in organizational techniques, time
management, schedules, and dates for completing an assignment.
• Offer to help students organize their schedule to minimize conflict with other assignments, whether in
the same class or different class. Students learn to plan ahead to complete the first assignment due and
to schedule their time accordingly. Help students set realistic goals, practical timelines, and reasonable
procedures for monitoring their own learning.
• Emphasize students' successes rather than highlighting limitations. For example, indicate the number
of items the student scored correctly (6/10) versus ones scored incorrectly (–4). Percentages may not
accurately give students an identifiable assessment of how they did on a test (e.g., 70% of a 10-item test
versus 70% of a 50-item test). Acknowledge specific positive performance of students rather than using
general remarks such as “nice job,” “good work,” or simply a letter grade. Instead, use descriptive
phrases (“Your essay demonstrates the key component of organization in writing and in logical
argument,” “I see improvement in your use of spell-check,” “I understand that you went to the writing
lab before you handed in your work; that is a productive habit,” or “I see that you have joined a study
group to prepare for the final exam; that is good initiative on your part.”).
• Help students acknowledge and accept their own effort in experiencing positive outcomes (students’
hard work, good study skills, sustained attention during class, efficient management of time, regular
attendance of class, keeping up with reading assignments, handing in assignments on time, and
proactively participating in course activity).
• Teach and model essential social skills such as how to ask questions, how to communicate with
professionals and classmates, when to volunteer or participate in class activities, and how to give a
different opinion without becoming defensive or argumentative.

6. ments. When giving assignments, the
instructor should be sure to clarify the
directions and expectations for all stu-
dents. Those expectations should be
realistic as well as challenging for all
students. Finally, instructors can utilize
multiple approaches when evaluating
student learning outcomes. Multiple
choice questions, written essays, group
assignments, class presentations, and
portfolios are all acceptable ways to
evaluate student learning. When
instructors utilize these principles of
learning and motivation, they are creat-
ing a learning environment that con-
tributes to constructive learning.
“Barrier-Free” Environment
Federal laws mandate that higher insti-
tutions provide a safe, barrier-free envi-
ronment to ensure equal access for stu-
dents with disabilities. Students come to
college with similar needs as when they
were in the public schools. Higher edu-
cation faculty need to take into account
the sometimes seemingly insignificant
yet critical environmental needs of stu-
dents in order to enhance their learning
experience. Instructors cannot always
determine or have any say regarding
whether furnishings for students with a
(physical) disability are appropriate; it is
important to maintain open communi-
cation with the university’s student
services or public school central office
to discuss possible or alternate access.
Instructors should be mindful about the
size of the desk, desk level, ease of writ-
ing on the table, the height between the
table and the student’s feet on the floor,
writing space (especially for students
who utilize assistive technology such as
screen magnifiers, alternate keyboards
or mouse-type devices), and the com-
fort of the seat itself (e.g., for students
who carry portable IVs or other medical
supplement). Instructors should also
take into account the need for extra
classroom space in order to maneuver
equipment such as leg braces, walking
cane, crutches, wheelchairs, or special
standing tables. In addition, before
beginning a lesson, the instructor
should consider the extra time students
may need to set up their writing stylus,
optical aids, magnification devices,
amplification equipment, writing lap-
boards, automatic page turners, laptops,
and so forth. Equally important for
K–12 teachers is to teach students how
and when to communicate their needs
(physical access, space, or time) when
they are in a postsecondary setting.
Federal laws mandate that higher
institutions provide a safe,
barrier-free environment
to ensure equal access for
students with disabilities.
External environmental conditions
that instructors must take into account
when working with students with dis-
abilities include appropriate lighting for
students with visual impairment or
those who are sensitive to light and
sound, well circulated ventilation and
temperature needs for students with
health impairments (e.g., asthma), and
easier access to the door for students
who need to use the restroom frequent-
ly. Students with learning difficulties
often become distracted because they
cannot concentrate. Particularly when
working with students who have hear-
ing problems or attention issues,
instructors need to consider the sensi-
tivity level of “white noise” from over-
head projectors and other equipment, or
the hallway noise from outside the
classroom.
Strategies for Empowering
Students
Instructors can significantly enhance
students with disabilities’ ability to suc-
ceed in postsecondary settings by focus-
ing on three areas: (a) helping students
to obtain timely and appropriate servic-
es; (b) planning instruction which
develops self-regulatory behaviors; and
(c) integrating essential study and learn-
ing skills into coursework. Even though
most of these strategies are more rele-
vant in postsecondary settings, it is
equally critical for K–12 teachers to help
students anticipate the demands of
higher education. Table 3 provides a
checklist of strategies in each of these
areas.
Final Thoughts
With the increasing enrollment of stu-
dents with disabilities in postsecondary
education, there is an urgent need for
higher education faculty as well as K–12
teachers to become vigilant not only
about regulations and accommodations
pertaining to students with disabilities
but also about helping students develop
the skills necessary to take responsibili-
ty for their own learning. The strategies
presented here are equally beneficial for
students with or without disabilities.
When instructors are willing and able to
make an effort in promoting skills of
self-empowerment, students will
become more engaged in learning and
more likely to be successful in school.
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mination scale. Washington, DC: Depart-
ment of Education Office of Special
Education and Rehabilitative Services.
Wehmeyer, M. L. (1996). Self-determination
as an educational outcome: Why is it
important to children, youth and adults
with disabilities? In D. J. Sands, & M. L.
Wehmeyer (Eds.), Self-determination
across the life span: Independence and
choice for people with disabilities (pp.
15–34). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Barbara S. S. Hong (CEC TX Federation),
Associate Professor; W. Fred Ivy, Associate
Professor; and Humberto R. Gonzalez, Dean
and Associate Professor, College of Education,
Texas A&M International University, Laredo.
Wendy Ehrensberger (CEC NY Federation),
Instructor, Dowling College, Oakdale, New
York.
Address correspondence to Barbara Hong,
Department of Professional Programs, College
of Education, Texas A&M International
University, Laredo, TX 78041 (e-mail:
bhong@tamiu.edu).
TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 40,
No. 1, pp. 32–38.
Copyright 2007 CEC.
38 ■ COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN