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2. ❖ Some general advice on academic writing…………………... 3
❖ Planning and organizing an essay……………………………. 5
❖ Reading and researching……………………………………… 6
❖ Using sources ………………………………………………….. 9
❖ Using quotations ………………………………………………. 10
❖ Paraphrase and summarizing………………………………… 12
❖ Using thesis statement ……………………………………….. 13
❖ Paragraphs …………………………………………………….. 14
❖ Topic sentence ………………………………………………… 16
❖ Introductions and conclusions ……………………………….. 17
❖ Revising and editing …………………………………………... 19

3. Some General Advice on Academic Essay-Writing
❖ An essay should have an argument. It should answer one or more questions
❖ It is develop by thinking, reading, and jotting a provisional thesis or hypothesis.
❖ An essay’s organization should be designed to present your argument clearly and
persuasively.

4. Some General Advice on Academic Essay-Writing
Some practices of good writers to compose essays properly:
● Start writing early, even before they think they are “ready” to write
● Don’t try to write an essay from beginning to end, write what seems readiest to be
written.
● Despite writing so freely, keep the essay’s overall purpose and organization in mind.
● Revise extensively.
● Once you have a complete and well-organized draft, revise sentences, with special
attention to transitions.
● Two other important considerations in revising sentences are diction (exactness and
aptness of words) and economy (the fewest words without loss of clear expression and
full thought). Lastly, proofread the final copy.

5. Planning and Organizing an essay
Some basic guidelines
Pre-writing stage: to think about how to organize your paper. When you begin planning, ask yourself questions.
How much of my time should I put into planning?
You have to find out for yourself what works best for you
Planning provides advantage. It helps you to produce a logical and orderly argument, to spot repetition and to notice
whether you have left anything out.
Overplanning could leave you without enough time to write and revise, can result in a writing style that lacks
spontaneity and ease and does not provide enough opportunity to discover new ideas in the process of writing.

6. Reading and Researching
Critical Reading Towards Critical Writing
Most of the papers you write will involve reflection on written texts.
In order to write your own analysis of this subject, you will need to
do careful critical reading.
To read critically is to make judgments about how a text is argued.
THE KEY IS THIS:
● don’t read looking only or primarily for information
● do read looking for ways of thinking about the subject matter

7. Taking Notes from Research Reading
1. Know what kind of ideas you need to record
2. Don’t write down too much, Your essay must be an expression of your own
thinking, not a patchwork of borrowed ideas.
3. Label your notes intelligently, You can use cards or pages for note-taking
Some Practical Tips
● Critical reading occurs after some preliminary processes of reading. Begin by
skimming research materials, especially introductions and conclusions.
● When highlighting a text or taking notes from it, teach yourself to highlight
argument: those places in a text where an author explains her analytical
moves, the concepts she uses, how she uses them, how she arrives at
conclusions.
● When you quote directly from a source, use the quotation critically.

8. By first skimming a text, you can get a sense of its overall logical progression and it can
also help you make decisions about where to place your greatest focus.
● Read carefully the introductory paragraph, or perhaps the first two paragraphs,
and try to predict the direction of the rest of the text.
● Read carefully the first one or two sentences of each paragraph, as well as the
concluding sentence or sentences.
● Try to avoid looking up unfamiliar words or terminology
● Read carefully the concluding paragraph or paragraphs.
● Finally, return to the beginning and read through the text carefully
Scanning is basically skimming with a more tightly focused purpose: skimming to locate a
particular fact or figure, or to see whether this text mentions a subject you’re researching.

9. Using Sources
The purpose of any paper is not to plagiarize. Including your sources it’s also a courtesy to your readers.
● Quotations, paraphrases, or summaries: If you use the author’s exact words, enclose them in
quotation marks, or indent passages of more than four lines.
● In most cases, use your own words to paraphrase or summarize the idea you want to discuss
● Specific facts used as evidence for your argument or interpretation
● Distinctive or authoritative ideas, whether you agree with them or not: The way you introduce a
reference can indicate your attitude and lead into your own argument.

10. Using Quotations
How much should I quote?
The focus of your essay should be on your understanding of the topic. If you
include too much quotation in your essay, you will crowd out your own ideas.
If an argument from one of your sources is relevant but does not deserve to be
quoted verbatim, consider:
● paraphrasing
● summarizing

11. Verbs for Referring to Sources
● acknowledge
● admit
● agree
● allege
● argue
● assert
● assume
● believe
● consider
● decide
● demonstrate
● deny
● determine
● discover
● doubt
● emphasize
● explain
● find
● hypothesize
● imply
● indicate
● infer
● note
● object
● point out
● prove
● reveal
● claim
● conclude
● observe

12. Paraphrase and Summary
To paraphrase means to restate someone else’s ideas in your own language at roughly the same level of
detail. To summarize means to reduce the most essential points of someone else’s work into a shorter form.
How do I paraphrase?
● You must provide a reference.
● The paraphrase must be in your own words.
How do I summarize?
When you summarize a passage, you need first to absorb the meaning and then to capture in your own words
the most important elements from the original passage.

13. Using Thesis Statements
When you are asked to write an essay, a clear statement of your position is expected. Typically, this summary
statement comes in the first paragraph. Here are some characteristics of good thesis statements:
1. It makes a definite and limited assertion that needs to be explained and supported by further
discussion
2. It shows the emphasis and indicates the methodology of your argument
3. It shows awareness of difficulties and disagreements

14. Paragraphs
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a series of related sentences developing a central idea, called the topic.
How do I unify my ideas in a paragraph?
The most effective way to achieve paragraph unity is to express the central idea of the paragraph in a
topic sentence.
Note: Not all paragraphs need topic sentences

15. How do I make my ideas flow in a paragraph?
The best overall strategy to enhance flow within a paragraph is to show connections. A variety of simple techniques can help you, such as
deliberate repetition of key words and strategic use of pronouns.
Specialized linking words can also be powerful tools for pulling ideas together:
To signal a reinforcement of ideas: To signal a change in ideas: To signal a conclusion:
also but thus
in other words on the other hand therefore
in addition however ultimately
for example instead in conclusion
moreover yet finally
more importantly in contrast so [informal]
although
nevertheless

16. Topic Sentence
A topic sentence states the main point of a paragraph: it serves as a mini-thesis for the
paragraph. They usually appear at the very beginning of paragraphs. Sometimes a transitional
sentence or two will come before a topic sentence.
To make a good T.S ask yourself what’s going on in your paragraph. Why have you chosen to
include the information you have? Why is the paragraph important in the context of your
argument? What point are you trying to make? Relating your topic sentences to your thesis can
help strengthen the coherence of your essay.

17. Introductions and Conclusions
Introductions and conclusions play a special role in the academic essay, and they frequently demand
much of your attention as a writer.
A good introduction should identify your topic, provide essential context, and indicate your particular
focus in the essay. It also needs to engage your readers’ interest.
A strong conclusion will provide a sense of closure to the essay while again placing your concepts in
a somewhat wider context.
How do I write an interesting, effective introduction?
● Use an apt quotation or expert opinion to lend authority to the conclusion you have reached.
● Give a startling statistic, fact, or visual image
● Return to an anecdote, example, or quotation that you introduced in your introduction, but add further insight

18. Advice about introductions
● Be aware of the dangers of sinking too much time into the introduction
● It can be fine to leave the writing of the introduction for a later stage in the essay-
writing process.
● The introductions for most papers can be effectively written in one paragraph
occupying half to three-quarters of the first page.
● Get to the point as soon as possible.
● If your essay has a thesis, your thesis statement will typically appear at the end of
your introduction.

19. Revising And Editing
Revising gives you the chance to preview your work on behalf of the eventual reader.
1) First check whether you have fulfilled the intention of the assignment. Look again at
the instruction sheet.
Have you performed the kind of thinking the assignment sheet asked for?
Have you written the genre of document called for?
Have you used concepts and methods of reasoning discussed in the course?
Have you given adequate evidence for your argument or interpretation?

20. Revising And Editing
2) Then look at the overall organization. It’s worthwhile to print out everything so
that you can view the entire document.
Does your introduction make clear where the rest of the paper is headed?
Is each section in the right place to fulfil your purpose?
Have you drawn connections between the sections?
Would a person reading your conclusion know what question you had asked and how
you had arrived at your answer?
3) Now polish and edit your style by moving to smaller matters such as word
choice, sentence structure, grammar, punctuation, and spelling.

21. Bibliography
Advice on Academic Writing. (n.d) Retrieved from: University of Toronto. Last visited: May 25th,
2022. Available at: Writing Advice | University of Toronto (utoronto.ca)