Training report on Embedded Systems and MATLAB

Govind Ballabh Pant Govt. Engineering College
Okhla, New Delhi -110020
REPORT OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
At WebTek Labs Pvt. Ltd.
On Embedded Systems & MATLAB
SUBMITTED BY:
Aswin Sreeraj
Electronics and Communication Engineering
5th
SEM
02320902814

INDEX
Page No.
1. About WebTek Labs 04
2. Acknowledgement 05
3. Declaration 06
4. Introduction 07
a. Embedded Systems 07
b. MATLAB 08
5. Embedded System 09
6. Microcontroller 10
a. Features 10
b. Microcontroller vs. Microprocessor 11
7. ATmega16 13
a. Features 13
b. Pin Diagram 14
c. Pin Descriptions 15
d. Software 16
e. Block Diagram 17
f. I/O ports 18
g. DC motor interfacing 20
h. LCD interfacing 21
i. Serial Communication 22
i. ATmega16 USART 22
8. MATLAB 24
a. The MATLAB System 25
b. Data types 26
c. Variables 26
d. Matrices 26
e. Structures 27
f. Functions 27
g. Function Handles 28
h. Classes and Object-Oriented Programming 28
i. Graphics and GUI Programming 28

9. Image Processing in MATLAB 30
a. Capabilities 30
b. Image Representation 30
c. Reading and writing image files 31
d. Basic operations 31
e. Filters 33
i. Linear Filter 33
ii. Non-linear Filter 33
10. Conclusion 34
11. Bibliography 35

About WEBTEK LABS
WebTek Labs Pvt. Ltd. is recognized as a leading IT solution providing
organization with a dynamic and fast growing team of diversely
talented individuals. Incorporated in 2001, they initially started with
Recruitment & Staffing services. They paralleled this by providing
knowledge and skill development certification training programs. WebTek
Certified Tester (WCT) Program that aims to provide IT companies
trained software Testers has reached soaring heights of recognition over
the years. Few years later after its inception, WebTek Labs added
Software development & testing services to the portfolio.
Having partnered and worked with some of the leading names across
Education, IT, ITES, Banking, Insurance, Aviation, Retail, Healthcare,
Hospitality, Media, Manufacturing and FMCG sectors, WebTek Labs has
explored business opportunities in software solutions with the
Government, Corporate and Institutes.
With over a decade of experience they create and deliver high-impact
solutions, enabling their clients to achieve their business goals and
enhance their competitiveness. WebTek's Research & Development
team consistently innovates to provide up-to-date solutions keeping in
pace with changing times. Their main business verticals are
 Recruitment & Staffing
 Software Development and Testing Services
 Digital Marketing
 Enterprise Mobility
 Certifications & Trainings for Career Management
 Software solutions

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to WebTek Labs for giving
me an opportunity to undergo Industrial Training for six weeks as well as
for providing me the knowledge of Embedded Systems and MATLAB. I
would also like to thank alla the technical experts, engineers and
executives for explaining the practical aspects of the theoretical
knowledge.
It is my pleasure to be indebted to various people, who directly or
indirectly contributed in the development of this work and who influenced
my thinking, behaviour, and acts during the course of study.
Lastly, I would like to thank the almighty and my parents for their moral
support and my friends with whom I shared my day-to-day experience
and received lots of suggestions that improved my quality of work.

DECLARATION
I, Aswin Sreeraj, student of B.Tech 3rd
year, studying at
Govind Ballabh Pant Govt. Engineering College, Okhla,
hereby declare that the summer training report on
“Embedded systems and MATLAB” submitted to Guru
Gobind Singh Indraprastha University in partial fulfilment
of Degree of Bachelor of Technology is the original work
conducted by me.
The information and data given in the report is authentic
to the best of my knowledge. This summer training
report is not being submitted to any other University for
award of any other Degree, Diploma and Fellowship.

INTRODUCTION
Embedded Systems
An embedded system is a system that has software embedded into
computer-hardware, which makes a system dedicated for an application
(s) or specific part of an application or product or part of a larger system.
The uses of embedded systems are virtually limitless, because every day
new products are introduced to the market that utilize embedded
computers in many ways. In recent years, hardware such as
microprocessors, microcontrollers, and FPGA chips have become much
cheaper. So when implementing a new form of control, it's wiser to just
buy the generic chip and write your own custom software for it.
Producing a custom-made chip to handle a particular task or set of tasks
costs far more time and money. Many embedded computers even come
with extensive libraries, so that "writing your own software" becomes a
very trivial task indeed.
Embedded systems are often required to provide Real-Time response.
A Real-Time system is defined as a system whose correctness depends
on the timeliness of its response. Examples of such systems are flight
control systems of an aircraft, sensor systems in nuclear reactors and
power plants. For these systems, delay in response is a fatal error. A
more relaxed version of Real-Time Systems, is the one where timely
response with small delays is acceptable. Example of such a system
would be the Scheduling Display System on the railway platforms. In
technical terminology, Real-Time Systems can be classified as:
 Hard Real-Time Systems - systems with severe constraints on the
timeliness of the response.
 Soft Real-Time Systems - systems which tolerate small variations in
response times.
 Hybrid Real-Time Systems - systems which exhibit both hard and soft
constraints on its performance.
Embedded systems are playing important roles in our lives every day,
even though they might not necessarily be visible. Some of the
embedded systems we use every day control the menu system on
television, the timer in a microwave oven, a cellphone, an MP3 player or
any other device with some amount of intelligence built-in. Embedded
systems is a rapidly growing industry where growth opportunities are
numerous.

MATLAB
MATLAB stands for MATRIX laboratory. It is a high level technical
computing language and interactive environment for algorithm
development, data visualization, data analysis and numeric computation.
MATLAB has many advantages compared to conventional computer
languages (e.g., C, FORTRAN) for solving technical problems. MATLAB
is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does
not require dimensioning. The software package has been commercially
available since 1984 and is now considered as a standard tool at most
universities and industries worldwide.
It has powerful built-in routines that enable a very wide variety of
computations. It also has easy to use graphics commands that make the
visualization of results immediately available. Speciﬁc applications are
collected in packages referred to as toolbox. There are toolboxes for
signal processing, symbolic computation, control theory, simulation,
optimization, and several other ﬁelds of applied science and engineering.
Below we see the schematic diagram of a typical project, showing which
steps are often realised with MATLAB

Embedded system
An embedded system is a computer system with a dedicated function
within a larger mechanical or electrical system, often with real-time
computing constraints.[1][2]
It is embedded as part of a complete device
often including hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systems are
designed to do some specific task, rather than be a general-purpose
computer for multiple tasks. Some also have real-time performance
constraints that must be met, for reasons such as safety and usability;
others may
have low or no
performance
requirements,
allowing the
system
hardware to be
simplified to
reduce costs.
Properties of
typically
embedded
computers
when
compared with general-purpose counterparts are low power
consumption, small size, rugged operating ranges, and low per-unit cost.
Embedded systems range from no user interface at all, in systems
dedicated only to one task, to complex graphical user interfaces that
resemble modern computer desktop operating systems
Modern embedded systems are often based on microcontrollers which
have on-chip peripherals, thus reducing power consumption, size and
cost. Embedded systems talk with the outside world via peripherals, like
Serial Communication Interfaces, Timers, ADC/DAC, USB, Ethernet, etc.
Embedded systems are commonly found in consumer, cooking,
industrial, automotive, medical, commercial and military applications.
Embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches
and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory
controllers, and largely complex systems like hybrid vehicles, MRI, and
avionics.

Microcontroller
A microcontroller (or MCU, short for microcontroller unit) is a small
computer (SoC) on a single integrated circuit containing a processor
core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals. Program
memory in the form of Ferroelectric RAM, NOR flash or OTP ROM is
also often included on chip, as
well as a typically small
amount of RAM.
A microcontroller can be
considered a self-contained
system with a processor,
memory and peripherals and
can be used as an embedded
system.[13]
The majority of
microcontrollers in use today
are embedded in other
machinery, such as automobiles, telephones, appliances, and
peripherals for computer systems.
Features:
 Microcontrollers are "embedded" inside some other device (often a
consumer product) so that they can control the features or actions
of the product. Another name for a microcontroller, therefore, is
"embedded controller."
 Microcontrollers are dedicated to one task and run one specific
program. The program is stored in ROM (read-only memory) and
generally does not change.
 Microcontrollers are often low-power devices.
 A microcontroller has a dedicated input device and often (but not
always) has a small LED or LCD display for output. A
microcontroller also takes input from the device it is controlling and
controls the device by sending signals to different components in
the device.
 A microcontroller is often small and low cost.
 A microcontroller is often, but not always, ruggedized in some way.
The microcontroller controlling a car's engine, for example, has to
work in temperature extremes that a normal computer generally
cannot handle.

As of 2008, there are several dozen microcontroller architectures and
vendors including:
 ARM core processors (many vendors)
o ARM Cortex-M cores are specifically targeted towards
microcontroller applications
 Atmel AVR (8-bit), AVR32 (32-bit), and AT91SAM (32-bit)
 Cypress Semiconductor's M8C Core used in their PSoC
(Programmable System-on-Chip)
 Freescale ColdFire (32-bit) and S08 (8-bit)
 Freescale 68HC11 (8-bit), and others based on the Motorola 6800
family
 Intel 8051, also manufactured by NXP Semiconductors, Infineon
and many others
 Infineon: 8-bit XC800, 16-bit XE166, 32-bit XMC4000 (ARM based
Cortex M4F), 32-bit TriCore and, 32-bit Aurix Tricore Bit
microcontrollers
 MIPS
 Microchip Technology PIC, (8-bit PIC16, PIC18, 16-bit dsPIC33 /
PIC24), (32-bit PIC32)
 Rabbit 2000 (8-bit)
 Renesas Electronics: RL78 16-bit MCU; RX 32-bit MCU; SuperH;
V850 32-bit MCU; H8; R8C 16-bit MCU
 Silicon Laboratories Pipelined 8-bit 8051 Microcontrollers and
mixed-signal ARM-based 32-bit microcontrollers
 STMicroelectronics STM8 (8-bit), ST10 (16-bit) and STM32 (32-bit)
 Texas Instruments TI MSP430 (16-bit), MSP432 (32-bit), C2000
(32-bit)
 Toshiba TLCS-870 (8-bit/16-bit)
Microcontroller vs. microprocessor
Microprocessor is an IC which has only the CPU inside them. These
microprocessors don’t have RAM, ROM, and other peripheral on the
chip. A system designer has to add them externally to make them
functional.
Microcontroller has a CPU, in addition with a fixed amount of RAM, ROM
and other peripherals all embedded on a single chip. Today different

manufacturers produce microcontrollers with a wide range of features
available in different versions.
Microcontrollers are designed to
perform specific tasks. Specific
means depending on the input,
some processing needs to be done
and output is delivered. For
example, keyboards, mouse,
washing machine, bikes,
telephone, watches, etc. Since the
applications are very specific, they
need small resources like RAM,
ROM, I/O ports etc. and hence can
be embedded on a single chip.
This in turn reduces the size and
the cost.
Microprocessor find applications
where tasks are unspecific like
developing software, games,
websites, photo editing, creating documents etc. In such cases the
relationship between input and
output is not defined.
The clock speed of the
Microprocessor is quite high
as compared to the
microcontroller. Whereas the
microcontrollers operate from
a few MHz to 30 to 50 MHz,
today’s microprocessor
operate above 1GHz as they
perform complex tasks.
A microcontroller is far
cheaper than a
microprocessor. However
microcontroller cannot be used
in place of microprocessor and using a microprocessor is not advised in
place of a microcontroller as it makes the application quite costly

ATmega16
The microcontroller used is ATmega16, which is a 40-pin IC and belongs
to the MegaAVR category of AVR family. AVR is a family of
microcontrollers de. These are modified Harvard architecture 8-bit RISC
single-chip microcontrollers. AVR was one of the first microcontroller
families to use on-chip flash memory for program storage, as opposed to
one-time programmable ROM, EPROM, or EEPROM used by other
microcontrollers at the time.Atmel Corporation is an American-based
designer and manufacturer of semiconductors, founded in 1984. The
company focuses on embedded systems built around
microcontrollers.The ATmega16 is a low-power CMOS 8-bit
microcontroller based on the AVR enhanced RISC architecture.
Features:
 High-performance, Low-power Atmel AVR 8-bit Microcontroller
 Advanced RISC Architecture
o 131 Powerful Instructions – Most
o Single-clock Cycle Execution
o 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers
o Fully Static Operation
o Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz
 High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments
o 16 Kbytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program
memory
o 512 Bytes EEPROM
o 1 Kbyte Internal SRAM
o Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM
o Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C
 Peripheral Features
o Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescalers and
Compare Modes
o One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare
Mode, and Capture Mode
o Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator
o Four PWM Channels
o 8-channel, 10-bit ADC
 8 Single-ended Channels
 7 Differential Channels in TQFP Package Only
 2 Differential Channels with Programmable Gain at 1x,
10x, or 200x
o Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface

o Programmable Serial USART
o Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface
o On-chip Analog Comparator
 Special Microcontroller Features
o Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection
o Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator
o External and Internal Interrupt Sources
 I/O and Packages
o 32 Programmable I/O Lines
o 40-pin PDIP, 44-lead TQFP, and 44-pad QFN/MLF
 Operating Voltages: 4.5V - 5.5V
 Speed Grades: 0 - 16 MHz
PIN DIAGRAM

PIN DESCRIPTIONS
VCC & GND Digital supply voltage & Ground.
Port A (PA7..PA0) Port A serves as the analog inputs to the
A/D Converter. Port A also serves as an 8-
bit bi-directional I/O port, if the A/D
Converter is not used. Port pins can provide
internal pull-up resistors (selected for each
bit). The Port A output buffers have
symmetrical drive characteristics with both
high sink and source capability. When pins
PA0 to PA7 are used as inputs and are
externally pulled low, they will source
current if the internal pull-up resistors are
activated. The Port A pins are tri-stated
when a reset condition becomes active,
even if the clock is not running.
Port B (PB7..PB0) Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with
bit). The Port B output buffers have
high sink and source capability. As inputs,
Port B pins that are externally pulled low will
source current if the pull-up resistors are
activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated
Port C (PC7..PC0) Port C is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with
bit). The Port C output buffers have
Port C pins that are externally pulled low
will source current if the pull-up resistors
are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated
Port D (PD7..PD0) Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with

bit). The Port D output buffers have
Port D pins that are externally pulled low
will source current if the pull-up resistors
are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated
RESET Reset Input. A low level on this pin for
longer than the minimum pulse length will
generate a reset, even if the clock is not
running. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed
to generate a reset.
XTAL1 Input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and
input to the internal clock operating circuit.
XTAL2 O/P from the inverting Oscillator amplifier.
AVCC AVCC is the supply voltage pin for Port A
and the A/D Converter. It should be
externally connected to VCC, even if the
ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it
should be connected to VCC through a low-
pass filter.
AREF AREF is the analog reference pin for the
A/D Converter
SOFTWARE
The software used for communicating with the hardware of the
ATmega16 microcontroller is WinAVR which uses C language for writing
the codes. The C code is compiled and converted into hex code. The
programmer used is usbarp.
WinAVR 2010 is a suite of executable, open source software
development tools for the Atmel AVR series of RISC microprocessors
hosted on the Windows platform. It includes the GNU GCC compiler for
C and C++. It is used by AVR Studio for compiling
programs/applications.

I/O Ports
AVR is 8 bit microcontroller. All its ports are 8 bit wide. Every port has
3 registers associated with it each one with 8 bits. Every bit in those
registers configure pins of particular port. Bit0 of these registers is
associated with Pin0 of the port, Bit1 of these registers is associated
with Pin1 of the port …and like wise for other bits.
DDRx register
DDRx (Data Direction Register) configures data direction of port pins.
Means its setting determines whether port pins will be used for input
or output. Writing 0 to a bit in DDRx makes corresponding port pin as
input, while writing 1 to a bit in DDRx makes corresponding port pin as
output.
Example:
 to make all pins of port A as input pins :
DDRA = 0b00000000;
 to make all pins of port A as output pins :
DDRA = 0b11111111;
 to make lower nibble of port B as output and higher nibble as
input :
DDRB = 0b00001111;
PINx register
PINx (Port PIN) used to read data from port pins. In order to read the
data from port pin, first you have to change port’s data direction to
input. This is done by setting bits in DDRx to zero. If port is made
output, then reading PINx register will give you data that has been
output on port pins. Now there are two input modes. Either you can
use port pins as tri stated inputs or you can activate internal pull up. It
will be explained shortly.
Example:
To read data from port A.
DDRA = 0x00; //Set port a as input
x = PINA; //Read contents of port a

PORTx register
PORTx is used for two purposes.
1) To output data : when port is configured as output
When you set bits in DDRx to 1, corresponding pins becomes output
pins. Now you can write data into respective bits in PORTx register.
This will immediately change state of output pins according to data
you have written. In other words to output data on to port pins, you
have to write it into PORTx register. However do not forget to set data
direction as output.
example :
 to output 0xFF data on port b
DDRB = 0b11111111; //set all pins of port b as outputs
PORTB = 0xFF; //write data on port
 to output data in variable x on port a
DDRA = 0xFF; //make port a as output
PORTA = x; //output variable on port
 to output data on only 0th bit of port c
DDRC.0 = 1; //set only 0th pin of port c as output
PORTC.0 = 1; //make it high.
2) To activate/deactivate pull up resistors – when port is configures as
input
When you set bits in DDRx to 0, i.e. make port pins as inputs, then
corresponding bits in PORTx register are used to activate/deactivate
pull-up registers associated with that pin. In order to activate pull-up
resister, set bit in PORTx to 1, and to deactivate (tri-state) set it to 0.
However, if you configure pin as tri state. Then pin goes into state of
high impedance. It is now simply connected to input of some OpAmp
inside the µC and no other circuit is driving it from µC. Thus pin has
very high impedance. In this case, if pin is left floating ,then even
small static charge present on surrounding objects can change logic
state of pin. If you try to read corresponding bit in pin register, its state
cannot be predicted. This may cause your program to go haywire, if it
depends on input from that particular pin.

DC MOTOR INTERFACING
 The simplest DC rotating machine consists of a single loop of wire
rotating about a fixed axis. The magnetic field is supplied by the
North and South poles of the magnet.
 Rotor is the rotating part.Stator is the stationary part.
 We can reverse the motor direction the simply by reversing the
power supply connection of motor. It means motor is bipolar
device.
Necessary Medium to Operate
 We are working on microcontroller and the maximum output
current that it can provide is 20mA.
 But our motor works on 1Amp current so to remove this problem
we will have to connect motor driver IC L293D in between the
microcontroller and motor.
PIN DESCRIPTION
Figure: L293D Figure: Interfacing with
ATmega16

LCD INTERFACING
 LCD’s are all around us so liquid crystal displays are very useful
in these days.
 It is a kind of display that is made up of a special matter state
formed using liquid and crystal both , it’s a forth state of matter
 The most popular one is 16x2 LCD module. It has 2 rows & 16
columns. The intelligent displays are two types:
o Text Display
o Graphics Display
PIN DESCRIPTION
Figure: pin configuration for 16 X 2 LCD
 8 data pins D7:D0
 Bi-directional data/command pins. Alphanumeric characters are
sent in ASCII format.
 RS: Register Select
RS = 0 -> Command Register is selected
RS = 1 -> Data Register is selected
 R/𝑊: Read or Write
0 -> Write, 1 -> Read
 E: Enable (Latch data)
Used to latch the data present on the data pins.
A high-to-low edge is needed to latch the data.
 VEE: contrast control.
 VDD & VSS: Power supply
VDD= +5V, VSS=GND

Serial Communication
In computing, a serial port is a serial communication physical interface
through which information transfers in or out one bit at a
time.Throughout most of the history of personal computers, data
transfer through serial ports connected the computer to devices such
as terminals and various peripherals.
For serial communication with devices like computer, ATmega16 is
interfaced with MAX232. The reason for using MAX232 is that
atmega16 works at TTL voltage level and for serial port we require
other voltage level, max232 converts the TTL voltage level to the
required voltage level. Atmega32 will receive the signal from MAX232
and transmit to max232 which will be received by serial port.
The MAX232 is a dual transmitter / dual receiver that typically is used
to convert the RX, TX, CTS, RTS signals. It converts signals from a
TIA-232 (RS-232) serial port to signals suitable for use in TTL-
compatible digital logic circuits.
ATmega16 USART
USART stands for Universal Synchronous Asynchronous
Receiver/Transmitter. This is of the synchronous type, i.e. the data
bits are synchronized with the clock pulses. Main task of Serial
USART is to initialize the serial port, sending a character, receiving a
character and sending/receiving formatted strings.
USART Pin Configuration
1. RxD: USART Receiver Pin (ATMega8 Pin 2; ATMega16/32 Pin 14)
2. TxD: USART Transmit Pin (ATMega8 Pin 3; ATMega16/32 Pin 15)
3. XCK: USART Clock Pin (ATMega8 Pin 6; ATMega16/32 Pin 1)
Registers
1) UDR: USART Data Register (16-bit): The USART Transmit Data
Buffer Register and USART Receive Data Buffer Registers share
the same I/O address referred to as USART Data Register or UDR.

2) UCSRA: USART Control and Status Register A (8-bit): Used for
setting various status flags and control siganls.
3) UCSRB: USART Control and Status Register B (8-bit): Used for
4) UCSRC: USART Control and Status Register C (8-bit): Used for
5) UBRR: USART Baud Rate Register (16-bit): The baud rate of
USART is set using the 16-bit wide USART Baud Rate Register
(UBRR). The 16-bit UBRR register is comprised of two 8-bit
registers – UBRRH (high) and UBRRL (low). Since there can be
only specific baud rate values, there can be specific values for
UBRR, which when converted to binary will not exceed 12 bits.
Hence there are only 12 bits reserved for UBRR[11:0].
Figure: MAX232 interfaced with ATmega16

MATLAB
MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a multi-paradigm numerical computing
environment and fourth-generation programming language. A proprietary
programming language developed by MathWorks, MATLAB allows
matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of
algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs
written in other languages, including C, C++, C#, Java, Fortran and
Python.
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It
integrates computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-
use environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar
mathematical notation. Typical uses include:
 Math and computation
 Algorithm development
 Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics
 Application development, including Graphical User Interface
building
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array
that does not require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many
technical computing problems, especially those with matrix and vector
formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in a
scalar noninteractive language such as C or Fortran. The name MATLAB
stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB was originally written to provide
easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK and
EISPACK projects, which together represent the state-of-the-art in
software for matrix computation.
MATLAB has evolved over a period of years with input from many users.
In university environments, it is the standard instructional tool for
introductory and advanced courses in mathematics, engineering, and
science. In industry, MATLAB is the tool of choice for high-productivity
research, development, and analysis.

MATLAB features a family of application-specific solutions called
toolboxes. Very important to most users of MATLAB, toolboxes allow you
to learn and apply specialized technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive
collections of MATLAB functions (M-files) that extend the MATLAB
environment to solve particular classes of problems. Areas in which
toolboxes are available include signal processing, control systems,
neural networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets, simulation, and many others..
The MATLAB System
The MATLAB system consists of five main parts:
 The MATLAB language: This is a high-level matrix/array language
with control flow statements, functions, data structures, input/output,
and object-oriented programming features. It allows both
"programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-
away programs, and "programming in the large" to create complete
large and complex application programs.
 The MATLAB working environment.: This is the set of tools and
facilities that you work with as the MATLAB user or programmer. It
includes facilities for managing the variables in your workspace and
importing and exporting data. It also includes tools for developing,
managing, debugging, and profiling M-files, MATLAB's applications
 Handle Graphics: This is the MATLAB graphics system. It includes
high-level commands for two-dimensional and three-dimensional data
visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation graphics.
It also includes low-level commands that allow you to fully customize
the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete Graphical
User Interfaces on your MATLAB applications.
 The MATLAB mathematical function library: This is a vast collection of
computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions like sum,
sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions
like matrix inverse, matrix eigenvalues, Bessel functions, and fast
Fourier transforms.

 The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API): This is a library
that allows you to write C and Fortran programs that interact with
MATLAB. It include facilities for calling routines from MATLAB
(dynamic linking), calling MATLAB as a computational engine, and for
reading and writing MAT-files.
DATA TYPES
By default, all constant and variables in MATLAB are double precision
floating point. All computations are also performed in double precision by
default. Double precision floating-point numbers in MATLAB have a finite
precision of roughly 16 significant decimal digits and a finite range of
roughly 10−308
to 10−308
.
VARIABLES
Variable names consist of a letter, followed by any number of letters,
digits, or underscores.
>>x = 17 >> y = 3*sin(x)
x = y =
17 -1.6097 3.0000
MATLAB uses only the first 31 characters of a variable name. MATLAB
is case sensitive; it distinguishes between uppercase and lowercase
letters. A and a are not the same variable. To view the value(s) assigned
to any variable, simply enter the variable name in the Command window.
MATRICES
A matrix is entered as a list of its elements following a few basic
conventions:
 Separate the elements of a row with blanks or commas.
 Use a semicolon, ;, to indicate the end of each row.
 Surround the entire list of elements with square brackets, [ ]
.

For example, type in the Command window:
>>A = [16 3 2 13; 5 10 11 8; 9 6 7 12; 4 15 14 1]
MATLAB displays the matrix you just entered:
A =
16 3 2 13
5 10 11 8
9 6 7 12
4 15 14 1
The element in row iand column j of A is denoted by A(i,j). If you try to
use the value of an element outside of the matrix, it is an error. On the
other hand, if you store a value in an element outside of the matrix, the
size increases auto
matically to accommodate the new element. A scalar is equivalent to a
1x1 matrix. In thiscase, the square brackets are not required:
A = 16
STRUCTURES
MATLAB has structure data types. Since all variables in MATLAB are
arrays, a more adequate name is "structure array", where each element
of the array has the same field names. In addition, MATLAB supports
dynamic field names (field look-ups by name, field manipulations, etc.).
Unfortunately, MATLAB JIT does not support MATLAB structures,
therefore just a simple bundling of various variables into a structure will
come at a cost.
FUNCTIONS
When creating a MATLAB function, the name of the file should match the
name of the first function in the file. Valid function names begin with an
alphabetic character, and can contain letters, numbers, or underscores.
Functions are also often case sensitive.

FUNCTION HANDLES
MATLAB supports elements of lambda calculus by introducing function
handles, or function references, which are implemented either in .m files
or anonymous nested functions.
CLASSES AND OBJECT-ORIENTED PROGRAMMING
MATLAB supports object-oriented programming including classes,
inheritance, virtual dispatch, packages, pass-by-value semantics, and
pass-by-reference semantics. However, the syntax and calling
conventions are significantly different from other languages. MATLAB
has value classes and reference classes, depending on whether the
class has handle as a super-class (for reference classes) or not (for
value classes).
Method call behavior is different between value and reference classes.
For example, a call to a method
A simple class in MATLAB
classdef hello
methods
function greet(this)
disp('Hello!')
end
end
end
GRAPHICS AND GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE
PROGRAMMING
MATLAB supports developing applications with graphical user interface
(GUI) features. MATLAB includes GUIDE(GUI development
environment) for graphically designing GUIs. It also has tightly integrated
graph-plotting features. For example, the function plot can be used to
produce a graph from two vectors x and y. The code:
>>x = 0:pi/100:2*pi;
>>y = sin(x);
>>plot(x,y)

produces the following figure of the sine function:

IMAGE PROCESSING IN MATLAB
Image Processing Toolbox provides a comprehensive set of reference-
standard algorithms, functions, and apps for image processing, analysis,
visualization, and algorithm development. You can perform image
analysis, image segmentation, image enhancement, noise reduction,
geometric transformations, and image registration. Many toolbox
functions support multicore processors, GPUs, and C-code generation.
Image Processing Toolbox supports a diverse set of image types,
including high dynamic range, gigapixel resolution, embedded ICC
profile, and tomographic. Visualization functions and apps let you explore
images and videos, examine a region of pixels, adjust color and contrast,
create contours or histograms, and manipulate regions of interest (ROIs).
The toolbox supports workflows for processing, displaying, and
navigating large images.
Capabilities
 Exploration and Discovery
 Image Enhancement
 Image Analysis
 Image Segmentation
 Image Registration and Geometric Transformations
 Large Image Processing and Performance Acceleration
Image representation
There are five types of images in MATLAB.
1. Grayscale. A grayscale image M pixels tall and N pixels wide is
represented as a matrix of double datatype of size M×N. Element
values (e.g., MyImage(m,n)) denote the pixel grayscale intensities
in [0,1] with 0=black and 1=white.
2. Truecolor RGB. A truecolor red-green-blue (RGB) image is
represented as a three-dimensional M×N×3 double matrix. Each
pixel has red, green, blue components along the third dimension
with values in [0,1], for example, the color components of pixel

(m,n) are MyImage(m,n,1) = red, MyImage(m,n,2) = green,
MyImage(m,n,3) = blue.
3. Indexed. Indexed (paletted) images are represented with an index
matrix of size M×N and a colormap matrix of size K×3. The
colormap holds all colors used in the image and the index matrix
represents the pixels by referring to colors in the colormap. For
example, if the 22nd color is magenta MyColormap(22,:) = [1,0,1],
then MyImage(m,n) = 22 is a magenta-colored pixel.
4. Binary. A binary image is represented by an M×N logical matrix
where pixel values are 1 (true) or 0 (false).
5. uint8. This type uses less memory and some operations compute
faster than with double types. For simplicity, this tutorial does not
discuss uint8 further.
Grayscale is usually the preferred format for image processing. In cases
requiring color, an RGB color image can be decomposed and handled as
three separate grayscale images. Indexed images must be converted to
grayscale or RGB for most operations.
Reading and writing image files
MATLAB can read and write images with the imread and imwrite
commands. When reading images, an unfortunate problem is that imread
returns the image data in uint8 datatype, which must be converted to
double and rescaled before use.
[Img,Map,Alpha] = imread(Filename);
imwrite(MyImage,'myimage.png');
Basic operations
Below are some basic operations on a grayscale image u:
% Statistics
uMax = max(u(:)); % Compute the maximum value
uMin = min(u(:)); % Minimum
uPower = sum(u(:).^2); % Power
uAvg = mean(u(:)); % Average
uVar = var(u(:)); % Variance
uMed = median(u(:)); % Median

hist(u(:),linspace(0,1,256)); % Plot histogram
% Basic manipulations
uClip = min(max(u,0),1); % Clip elements to [0,1]
uPad = u([1,1:end,end],[1,1:end,end]); % Pad image with one-pixel
margin
uPad = padarray(u,[k,k],'replicate'); % Pad image with k-pixel
margin
uCrop = u(RowStart:RowEnd,ColStart:ColEnd); % Crop image
uFlip = flipud(u); % Flip in the up/down direction
uFlip = fliplr(u); % Flip left/right
uResize = imresize(u,ScaleFactor); % Interpolate image
uRot = rot90(u,k); % Rotate by k*90 degrees with integer k
uRot = imrotate(u,Angle); % Rotate by Angle degrees
uc = (u - min(u(:))/(max(u(:)) - min(u(:))); % Stretch contrast to [0,1]
uq = round(u*(K-1))/(K-1); % Quantize to K graylevels {0,1/K,2/K,...,1}
% Simulating noise
uNoisy = u + randn(size(u))*sigma; % Add white Gaussian noise of
standard deviation sigma
uNoisy = u; uNoisy(rand(size(u)) < p) = round(rand(size(u))); % Salt
and pepper noise

FILTERS:
1. Linear Filter
A linear filter is an operation where at every pixel xm,n of an image, a
linear function is evaluated on the pixel and its neighbors to compute
a new pixel value ym,n.
A linear filter in two dimensions has the general form
𝑦 𝑚,𝑛 = ∑ ∑ ℎ𝑗,𝑘 𝑥 𝑚−𝑗,𝑛−𝑘
𝑘𝑗
where x is the input, y is the output, and h is the filter impulse
response. Different choices of h lead to filters that smooth, sharpen,
and detect edges, to name a few applications. The right-hand side of
the above equation is denoted concisely as h∗x and is called the
“convolution of h and x.”
 Spatial-domain filtering
 Fourier-domain filtering
2. Non-linear Filter
A nonlinear filter is an operation where each filtered pixel ym,n is a
nonlinear function of xm,n and its neighbors.
 Order statistic filters
 Morphological filters

Conclusion
An embedded system is a special purpose system that is used to
perform one or few dedicated functions. Simply, we can call any
computer system embedded inside an electronic device an embedded
system. Embedded systems are made to perform few tasks only, after
implementation you can’t use them for another purposes.
Embedded systems are implemented using microcontrollers (and
microprocessors).Microcontroller is a full computer system on a chip,
even if its resources are far more limited than of a desktop personal
computer. It is designed for standalone operations. A microcontroller has
a processor and many peripherals integrated with it on the same chip,
like a flash memory, RAM, I/O ports, serial communication ports, ADC
…Etc.
Atmega16 microcontroller is a 40-pin IC and belongs to the MegaAVR
category of AVR family. It has various features which are suitable for the
implementation of an embedded system. Various peripherals can be
interfaced with ATmega16 microcontroller.
MATLAB (“MATrix LABoratory”) is a tool for numerical computation
and visualization. The basic data element is a matrix, so if you need a
program that manipulates array-based data it is generally fast to write
and run in MATLAB.
Image Processing is processing of images using mathematical operations
by using any form of signal processing for which the input is an image, a
series of images, or a video, such as a photograph or video frame; the
output of image processing may be either an image or a set of
characteristics or parameters related to the image. In MATLAB , there is a
toolbox for performing image processing

References & Bibliography
 Barrett, Steven F., and Daniel J. Pack. Atmel AVR Microcontroller
Primer: Programming and Interfacing. San Rafael, CA: Morgan &
Claypool, 2008. Print.
 MATLAB. "Image Processing Toolbox." Image Processing Toolbox -
MATLAB - MathWorks India. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sep. 2016.
{https://in.mathworks.com/products/image/}
 Getreuer, Pascal. "Image Processing with MATLAB - Pascal
Getreuer." Pascal Getreuer. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sep. 2016.
{ http://www.getreuer.info/tutorials/matlabimaging}
 Atmel. "ATmega16." ATmega16. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2016.
{http://www.atmel.com/devices/ATMEGA16.aspx}
 "Embedded System." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, n.d.
Web. 20 Sept. 2016.
{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system}
 Atmel. "ATmega16." ATmega16. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2016.
{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontroller}
 "A Brief Introduction to Matlab." A Brief Introduction to Matlab. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 20 Nov. 2016.
{http://www.egr.msu.edu/~aviyente/Matlab_intro.htm}

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