Computer glossary by asim ali khan

O’LevelsComputerStudies2014
Prepared&CompliedBy
AsimAli Khan

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Author:Asim AliKhan:Contact:0333-4316006
TABLEOFCONTENTS
Chapters Contents PageNo
One………………… Hardware………………………………………………………………………………….. 2‐8
Two……………….. Software…………………………………………………………………………………… 9‐14
Three……………… OrganizationOfData………………………………………………………………. 15‐17
Four……………….. DataIntegrity…………………………………………………………………………... 18‐19
Five………………… AlgorithmDesign&ProgrammingConcepts……………………………. 20‐21
Six…..……………… SystemDevelopmentLifeCycle….……………………………………………. 22‐23
Seven….…..……… Commercial&GeneralDataProcessing……………………………………. 24‐25
Eight….…..………. LogicGates&LogicNetworks…………………………………………………… 26
Nine……………….. Monitoring&Control……………………………………………………………….. 27‐29
Ten…………………. DataCommunication&Network……………………………………………… 30‐35
Eleven…………….. ComputerSecuritySystem……………………………………………………….. 36
Twelve……………. SocialEffectsofInformationSystems.......................................... 37‐38
Thirteen…………. EmploymentintheITField………………………………………………………. 39

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HARDWARE ChapterOne
SYSTEMUNIT
A systemunitisthemainbodyofadesktopcomputermadeup ofametalorplasticenclosure
containingthemotherboard,powersupply,coolingfans,internaldiskdrives,memorymodules,
expansionslot,expansioncards,videoandnetworkcardsandetc.
Example:DesktopCasing.MinitowerCasing,FulltowerCasing
MOTHERBOARD–
Themainboardofacomputer,usuallycontainingthecircuitryforthecentralprocessingunit,
keyboard,andmonitorandoftenhavingslotsforacceptingadditionalcircuitry.
MOUSE–
AmouseisapointingdeviceusedtointeractwithaPCwiththehelpofinteractiveobject(pointer)
thatcontrolsthemovementofthecursororpointeronadisplayscreen.
Example:Serialmouse,USBmouse,Lasermouse,Opticalmouse,Cordlessmouse
PARALLELPORT–
Aparallelportisatypeofinterfacefoundoncomputersforconnectingvariousperipherals
SERIALPORT–
Aserialportisaserialcommunicationphysicalinterfacethroughwhichinformationtransfersinorout onebitata
timetotheconnectedperipheraldevices.
USBPort–
UniversalSerialBus(USB)isaserialbusstandardtointerfacedevices.Itwasoriginallydesignedfor
personalcomputers,butithasbecomecommonplaceonhandhelddevicessuchasportablememory
devices,videogameconsoles,PDAsandportablemediaplayers.
CPU–
Acentralprocessingunit(CPU),orsometimessimplyprocessor,isthecomponentinadigital
computerthatinterpretsandexecutescomputerprograminstructionsandprocessesdata.
Aprocessorconsistsofcontrolunitandanarithmeticandlogicunit.
ARITHMETICLOGICUNIT(ALU)–
Thesectionofamicroprocessor,whichcontainsalargeamountoflogiccircuitry,andperformsthe
fourbasicarithmeticfunctions(addition,subtraction,multiplication,anddivision
CONTROLUNIT-
ThecontrolUnit(CU)isacircuitrypartofaprocessorthatusesmanyelectricalsignalstodirectthe
individualinstructionstoredinthememorytoexecuteonebyone.
REGISTER–
RegistersareCPUmemorywhichholdsdatatobe processed,theresultsofcalculations,oraddresses
pointingtothelocationofdesireddata;they'reofvaryingnumber,type,andsizedependingonthe CPUdesign.
BUFFERS-
Abufferisanareaofmemoryusedfortemporarystorageofdatawhenaprogramorhardwaredevice
needsanuninterruptedflowofinformation.Itisfoundonprintersanddigitalcamerawhereimage
dataisheldwhileitawaitsprocessingandtransferstothecamera'smemorycard.

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DATAREGISTERS-
Thememorydataregister(MDR)isthetemporarystorageareasforinstructionsordatafoundinthe
CPU.Theyarenotpartofmemory;rathertheyarespecialadditionalstoragelocationsinCPU.
RANDOMACCESSMEMORY(RAM)–
Volatilesemiconductorstoragestructuresthataccessestemporarydatawitharandomordirect
accessingmethoderasing,readingandwritingmemory.
ZIPDRIVE–
A Zipdriveisasmall,portablediskdriveusedprimarilyforbackingupandarchivingpersonal
computerfiles.
READ-ONLYMEMORY(ROM)–
Asemiconductormemorywhosedatacannotbeerased,oroverwritten;itcanonlybeaccessed(read)
ThedatainaROMisofapermanentnatureandisprogrammedbytheROMmanufacturer.
MEMORYADDRESS-
AmemoryaddressisauniqueidentifierforamemorylocationatwhichaCPUorotherdevicecan
storeapieceofdataforlaterretrieval.
ACCUMULATOR-
AsectionofCPUmemory,whichstorestemporaryarithmeticinformationforfutureprocessing.The
accumulatorisinterfacebetweentheALUandothersectionsofthecomputer.
ADDRESSREGISTER-
Keepstrackofwhereagiveninstructionorapieceofdataisstoredinmemory.Eachstoragelocation
inthememoryisidentifiedbyanaddresswhichistobeprocessedorofthenextinstructiontobe
executed.
STORAGEREGISTER-
Temporalityholdsdatatakenfromthememoryorabouttobesendingtothememory.
GENERAL-PURPOSEREGISTER
Itcanstorebothdataandaddresses,i.e.,theyarecombinedData/Addressregisters.
INTERFACECARDS-
Aninterfacecardisahardwareconnectorusedtolinktootherdevicesorcomputersystemfor
communication.
SYSTEMBUS-
TheBusthatconnectstogetherprocessor,mainmemoryandInput/Outputcontrollersiscalledthe
systembus.Atypicalsystembuscontainsbetween50and100separatelines.Eachlineisapathway
forconveyingssinglebit.
CONTROLBUS-
TheBusisabi-directionalbus,meaningthatsignalscanbecarriedinbothdirections.Thepurposeof
thecontrolbusistotransmitcommand,timingandspecificstatusinformationbetweensystem
components.
DATABUS-
Atypicaldatabusconsistsof8,16,32separatelines.Itprovidesabi-directionalpathforthe
movementofdataandinstructionsbetweencomponents.

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ADDRESSBUS-
Addressbusisthesourceoffetchingdatafromthememoryusingaddressofthedatabythe processor.
EXAMPLE:
Iftheaddressbusconsistedofonly8lines,thenthemaximumaddressitcouldtransmit
wouldbe255.
INTERRUPT–
Asignal,informingaprogramthataneventhasoccurred.Whenaprogramreceivesaninterrupt
signal,ittakesaspecifiedaction.Interruptsignalscancauseaprogramtosuspenditselftemporarily
toservicetheinterrupt.
EXAMPLE:
Themostcommontypesofinterruptsare:ProgramInterrupts,TimeInterrupts,Input/
OutputInterruptsandhardwarefailureinterrupts.
SYSTEMCLOCKRATE–
Itistherateofanelectronicpulseusedtosynchronizeprocessing.Onlyoneactioncantakeplace
betweenpulses
CLOCKSPEED–
ProcessorsaremeasuredinMhz(Megahertz)whichisanexpressionofmillions,orGHz(Gigahertz)
thatisthousandmillions.A 400MHzcando400millionoperationsasecond.A 1.5GHzprocessorcan
do1500millionoperationsasecond.
EXAMPLE:
Itismeasuredinmegahertz(MHz).1MHz=1millionpersecond
BUSWIDTH–
ThisistheamountofdatatheCPUcantransmitatatimetothemainmemoryandtoinputand
outputdevices.Buswidthcanbe8,16,32or128.
EXAMPLE:
An8-bitbusmoves8bitsofdataatatime.
WORDSIZE–
AwordsizeistheamountofdatathattheCPUcanprocessatatime.An8-bitprocessorcan
manipulate8bitsata time.
EXAMPLE:
Processorcanbe8,16,32or64bitsofar.
TRACKBALL–
Acomputerinputdeviceforcontrollingthepointeronadisplayscreenbyrotatingaballsetinsidea case.
EXAMPLE:
Trackballsareoftenseenonlaptopcomputers.
SCANNER–
Scannersareusedtoscantextorpicturesintoacomputermemory.

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TOUCHSCREEN–
Itsaninputdevicethatallowsusertointeractwithcomputerby touchingthedisplayscreen.Oftenthis
usesbeamsofinfraredlightthatareprojectedacrossthescreensurface.Interruptingthebeams generatesan
electronicsignalidentifyingthelocationofthescreen.Softwareinterpretsthesignaland
performstherequiredoperation.
LIGHTPEN–
Ahand-heldlight-sensitivedeviceusedforpointingatcharactersorobjectsonaCRTinordertomake
ormodifydrawingsortoindicatefunctionstobeperformed.
SENSOR–
Amechanicaldevicesensitivetolight,temperature,radiationlevel,orthelike,thattransmitsa signal
toameasuringorcontrolinstrument.
BARCODE–
Barcodeisasetofparallellinesofvaryingthickness,whicharealternatelyblackandwhite
representinganumber.
EXAMPLE:
Usedinsupermarketproductsandbooks.
BARCODEREADER–
A barcodereaderisacomputerperipheralforreadingbarcodesprintedonvarioussurfaces.Likea
flatbedscanner,itgenerallyconsistsofalightsource,alensandaphotoconductortranslatingoptical
impulsesintoelectricalones.
GIGABYTES–
Agigabyte(GB)isameasureofcomputerdatastoragecapacityandis"roughly"abillionbytes.
EXAMPLE:
A gigabyteistwotothe30thpower,or1,073,741,824indecimalnotation.
CHECKSUM–
AChecksumalgorithmis todetectlimitedandaccidentalmodificationsuchascorruptiontostored
dataorerrorsinacommunicationchannel.Itcountsofthenumberofbitsinatransmissionunitthat
isincludedwiththeunitsothatthereceivercanchecktoseewhetherthesamenumberofbits
arrived.Ifthecountsmatch,it'sassumedthatthecompletetransmissionwasreceived.
MICR–
MagneticInkCharacterRecognitionisacharacterrecognitionsystemthatusesspecialinkand
characters.Whenadocumentthatcontainsthisinkneedstoberead,itpassesthroughamachine,
whichmagnetizestheinkandthentranslatesthemagneticinformationintocharacters.
EXAMPLE:
MICRtechnologyisusedbybanks.Numbersandcharactersfoundonthebottomofchecks
(usuallycontainingthechecknumber,sortnumber,andaccountnumber)areprintedusingMagnetic
Ink.ToprintMagneticInkneed,youneedalaserprinterthatacceptsMICRtoner.
OCR
Itisamethodofinputtingtextusingascannerwhichreflectslightfromdataandwritesitonthe
systemdigitally.
EXAMPLE:

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OMR–
OpticalMarkReadersareabletosensemarksmadeinrightpositiononaspecialform.Abeamoflight
isdirectedontothesurfaceofthecardordocument.Thebeamisreflectedfromthesurfacetoalight
sensor.Whenamarkpassesunderthebeamlesslightisreflectedbackandthepresenceofthemark is registered.
EXAMPLE:
UsedforMCQs,questionnairesandenrolmentforms
DIGITIZER-
A graphicstabletalsoknownasdigitizingpadordigitizerisaboardwhichcandetectthepositionofa pen-
likestylusonitssurface.Adesignisputontotheboardanditsshapeis tracedoutwiththe
stylus.Electricalsignalssenttothecomputerrecordthepositionsofthestylus.
Example:
Reproducingdrawings,designs,mapsandcircuitboards
SMARTCARD–
Asmartcardisaplasticmadecard,whichhasitsownprocessorandamemorychip.One
cardcanstoreabout8000characters.
EXAMPLE:
Debitcard,Creditcards,TelephoneCard
POS–POINTOFSALE
Point-Of-Saleterminalisadeviceatapointofsalewhichrecordsdetailsofsalesforcomputer
processing.
EXAMPLE:
Aterminalatasupermarketcheckout,withalaserscannertoreadbatcodes.
DOT-MATRIXPRINTERS-
Dot-Matrixprintersareimpactprinters.Thepaperisheldonacylindrical„platen‟witharibbonheldin
frontofit.Eachcharacterisproducedbyaprintingheadhittingtheribbonontothepaper.The
printingheadhasinitarectangularmatrixofneedles.Theappropriateneedlesarepushedforward
electricallytoformtheshapeoftheletterrequired.
INK-JETPRINTERS-
Anink-jetprinterisanon-impactcharacterprinter.Theyaresilentinoperation.Theprintheadofan ink-
jetprinterconsistsofnozzles9usually64).Theinkflowsthroughtheappropriatenozzle,whereit
isheatedandbubbleforms.Thisexpandsandbreaks,releasingaverysmallinkdroplet.
LASERPRTINERS-
Thesearenon-impactprinters.Alaserbeamisusedtoformanimageonarotatingchargeddrum.
Laserprintershavetonercartridges,whichcontainafinepowdercalledtoner.Thechargedimage
thenpicksupthetonerparticles,whicharetransferredtothepaper,whichis alsocharged.Oncethe
imagehasbeentransferred,heatandpressureareusedtostickittothepaperpermanently.
COMPUTEROUTPUTONMICROFICHE(COM)-
Amicroficheisarectangularsheetofmicrofilmlargeenoughtocontainanumberofpagesofdata–
typically30to300.
EXAMPLE:
Itisusedtostoreinformationlikethepagesofbooksandnewspapers.

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GRAPHPLOTTERS-
A graphplotterisadevicecommonlyusedinproducingprintingplans,maps,linediagramsandthree
dimensionaldrawingsonapaper.
VOICESYNTHESIS-
Voicesynthesisisusedwhentheoutputassoundisrequired.
EXAMPLE:
Thismethodisusuallyusefulforhandicappedpeople.
VOICERECOGNITION-
Voicerecognitionisatechniquebywhichsounds,wordsorphrasesspokenby humansareconverted
intoelectricalsignals,andthesesignalsaretransformedintocodingpatternstowhichmeaninghas
beenassigned.
MODEM-
Amodemallowstwocomputerstocommunicateoverordinaryphonelines.Itderivesitsnamefrom modulate/
demodulate,theprocessbywhichitconvertsdigitalcomputerdatabackandforthforuse
withananalogphoneline.
MAGNETICDISK-
Atypicalmagneticdiskhastwosurfacesorsides,whichholdsdataoncirculartracksinwhichdata
canbereadandwritten.Eachtrackisdividedintoequalsectioncalledsectors.Thesectorinthedisks
isdirectaccess.Atracknumberandsectornumberareusedasanaddresstofindthedata.
MAGNETICTAPE-
aribbonofmaterial,usuallywithaplasticbase,coatedononeside(singletape)orbothsides
(doubletape)withasubstancecontainingironoxide,tomakeitsensitivetoimpulsesfroman
electromagnet:
EXAMPLE:
usedtorecordsound,images,data,etc.
OPTICALDISKS-
Astoragemediumfromwhichdataisreadandtowhichitiswrittenbylasers.Opticaldiskscanstore
muchmoredata--upto6gigabytes(6billionbytes).Digitaldataisstored,astext,music,or
pictures,astinypitsinthesurfaceandisreadorreplayedbyalaserbeamscanningthesurface.
PERIPHERALDEVICES-
A peripheraldeviceisanydeviceattachedtoacomputerinordertoexpanditsfunctionality.Some
ofthemorecommonperipheraldevicesareprinters,scanners,diskdrives,tapedrives,microphones,
speakers,andcameras.
ROM–ReadOnlyMemory
Formofcomputermemorythatdoesnotloseitscontentswhenthepowersupplyiscutoffandthatis
notrewritableonceitismanufacturedorwritten.Itisgenerallyemployedforprogramsdesignedfor
repeatedusewithoutmodification,suchasthestart-upproceduresofapersonalcomputer.
PROM–ProgrammableReadOnlyMemory–
Apermanentemptymemorychipinwhichthecontentisprogrammedbytheusersratherthanbythe
chipmanufacturer.PROMsareusedforstoragewhentheircontentisnotexpectedtochanged

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EPROM–ErasableProgrammableReadOnlyMemory-
Ageneraltermforanon-volatile,semiconductormemorythatcanbeprogrammed,erased,and
reprogrammedmanytimeswithoutdamagetothedevice.
EEPROM–ElectronicallyErasableProgrammableReadOnlyMemory
Electronicallyerasableprogrammableread-onlymemory.EEPROMisaspecialtypeofPROMthatcan
beerasedby exposingit toanelectricalcharge.Itholdsbitsofdatacodethatcanberewrittenand
erasedbyanelectricalcharge,onebyteatatime.EEPROMdatacannotbeselectivelyrewritten;the
entirechipmustbeerasedandrewrittentoupdateitscontents.
HARDDISK–
Aharddiskisametalplatewithmagneticsurfacesthatstoresdataonit.Theharddriveequipment
readsfromandwritestothesurfaceoftheharddisk.
USB–UniversalSerialBus
USBisthemostcommontypeofcomputerpor.TheUSB1.1specificationsupportsdatatransferrates
ofupto12Mb/secandUSB2.0hasamaximumtransferrateof480Mbps.Itcanbeusedtoconnect
keyboards,mice,gamecontrollers,printers,scanners,digitalcameras,andremovablemediadrives.
CD-ROM–
Standsfor"CompactDiscRead-OnlyMemory."ACD-ROMisaCDthatcanbereadbyacomputerwith
anopticaldrive.The"ROM"partofthetermmeansthedataonthediscis"read-only,"orcannot
alteredorerased.
MP3/MP$Players–
Adigitalaudioplayer,orDAP,usuallyreferredtoasanMP3player,is aconsumer
electronicdevicethathastheprimaryfunctionofstoring,organizingandplayingaudiofiles.Some
DAPsarealsoreferredto asportablemediaplayersastheyhaveimage-viewingand/orvideo-playing support.

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SOFTWARE
USERINTERFACE-
Auserinterfaceallowstheusertocommunicatewiththecomputer.
ChapterTwo
COMMANDDRIVENINTERFACE–
Atypeofcomputerinterface,inwhich,theinputcommandisa stringoftextcharacters.Contrastwith
graphicaluserinterface.
EXAMPLE:
MSDOS,UNIX
GRAPHICALUSERINTERFACE-
Agraphicaluserinterfaceletsusersinteractwiththeircomputerviaiconsandapointerinsteadofby
typingintextatacommandline.
EXAMPLE:
PopularGUIssuchasSunMicrosystem'sOpenWindowsMicrosoft'sWindowsandApple'sMac
OS
SYSTEMSOFTWARE-
Systemsoftwareisacollectionofsomecomplexprograms,whichareassignedtocontrolandoperate
thecomputersystem.Thisisusuallyprovidedbythemanufacturertocontrolthehardwaredevices.
EXAMPLE:
OperatingSystems,Translatorprograms,Utilityprograms.
OPERATINGSYSTEM-
Asystemsoftwarewhichdirectsacomputer'soperations,controllingandschedulingtheexecutionof
otherprograms,andmanagingstorage,input/output,andcommunicationresources.
EXAMPLE:
MicrosoftWindows,MS-DOS,Linux,UNIX
JOBSORFUNCTIONSOFOPERATINGSYSTEM–
1. JobControl
• JobControl–Loadsprogramsintothememory
• ProvidesContinuousprocessofprograms
• Providesjobqueuingfacilitywithaprioritysystemforexampleinprintingprocess.
2. MemoryManagement
• Stores,retrieves,erasesandcopieddatafilesandprograms.
• Supportdifferentfileorganizationmethods.
• Callprogramsandsubroutinesintothemainmemory.
3. Resourceskeepingmanagement
• Numberoffilesandwheretheyarekept.
• Availabilityofremainingstoragespaceonthedisk
• Keepinglogginghistoryonanetwork
• Detectingnewhardware
4. DisplaySystemErrorMessages
• Notifytheuserwhenanillegaloperationisperformed.
• Displaymessageiflessmemoryisleft
5. Maintainssecuritychecks
• Maintainsuser‟sIDandPassword
6. Handlesmulti-programming
• AllowCPUtoprocessmorethanoneprogramatthesametime
7. ControlsInputandOutputDevices
• Transfersdatabetweenseveralperipherals

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TRANSLATORPROGRAM-
Translatorprogramsaresystemsoftwarewhichconvertsthehigh-levellanguageinstructions
intomachinecode.
EXAMPLE:
Compilers,Interpreters,Assemblers
UTILITYPROGRAMS-
Theutilityprogramissystemsoftwarethatperformstasksthatoftenareneededandcommontoall
applications.
EXAMPLE:
Abackuputilityprogram,Defragmenterprogram,Scandiskprogram,Copypasteprogrametc.
APPLICATIONSOFTWARE–
Applicationsoftwareallowsperformanceofspecifictasks,suchaswritingletters,computingformulas,
playinggames,orcarryingoutdesktoppublishingtasks
EXAMPLE:
Word-Processingpackages,spreadsheetpackages,databaseManagementpackagesetc.
HIGH-LEVELLANGUAGE-
A high-levellanguageusedtowritecomputerprograms,asCOBOLorBASIC,or,sometimes,an
assemblylanguageisused.
LOW-LEVELLANGAUGE–
Thisisthelanguagethatacomputercanunderstanddirectly.Thelanguageconsistsofbinarycodes
(seriesof0‟s1‟s).
DESKTOPPUBLISHING–
Thedesignandproductionofpublicationsbymeansofspecializedsoftwareenablingamicrocomputer
togeneratetypeset-qualitytextandgraphics.
EXAMPLE:
MSPublisher,PageMaker,PagePlus
COMMUNICATIONSOFTWARE-
Communicationsoftware-istheprogramthatisusedtoexchangereal-timemessagesintext,audio
and/orvideoformatsforcommunicationpurposesfromoneuserIDtoanother.
EXAMPLE:
Thistermisusedwhenreferredtochatandinstantmessagingprograms
WindowsNetmeeting,Microsoftinternetbrowser,Outlookexpressetc.
WEBBROWSER–
A webbrowserisasoftwareapplicationthatenablesausertodisplayandinteractwithtext,
images,andotherinformationtypicallylocatedonawebpageatawebsiteontheWorldWideWebor
alocalareanetwork.
EXAMPLE:
Explorer,Mozilla,NetscapeNavigatorstc.
GRAPHICPACKAGES–
Theseareapplicationsoftwarethatcanbeusedto createandmanipulateimagesonacomputer.
EXAMPLE:
AdobePhotoshop,CorelDraw,PaintBrushetc.

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COMPUTERAIDEDDESIGN(CAD)–
Thisisapplicationsoftwareusedtodisplay,designandacceptanychangestothemandcalculateand
displaytheresult.
EXAMPLE:
Itassistsengineers,architectsandotherdesignprofessionalsintheirdesignactivities.
AutoCAD,TurboCADetc.
COMPUTERAIDEDDESIGN/COMPUTERAIDEDMANUFACTURING–CAD/CAM
Computer-AidedDesignandManufacturing.Theuseofcomputersinthedesignandmanufactureof
productssuchascarsairplanesshipsandcomputers.
DATALOGGINGPACKAGES–
Acomputerprogrammayautomaticallyrecordeventsautomaticallyoveracertainperiodoftime.
Sensorsareusedtomonitorphysicalquantitiesliketemperature,pressure,humidityetc.
EXAMPLE:
LogITLab,Insight2etc.
MULTIMEDIA–
Multimediaismediathatusesmultipleformsofinformationcontentandinformationprocessing(e.g.
text,audio,graphics,animation,video,interactivity)toinformorentertainthe(user)audience.
EXAMPLE:
Encyclopedia,Self-studyprograms,Games,Presentationsetc.
VIRTUALREALITY–
Arealisticsimulationofanenvironment,includingthree-dimensionalgraphics,byacomputersystem
usinginteractivesoftwareandhardware.
INTEGRATEDPACKAGES–
Therearesomeapplicationsoftwarepackagesthatgivesomecombinedfacilitiesofword-processing,
spreadsheet,database,desktoppublishingandcommunicationsoftware.
EXAMPLE:
MicrosoftOffice,SunStarOffice.
ASSEMBLYLANGUAGE–
Aprogramminglanguagethatconsistsofagroupofcodedlettersorlabels,calledmnemonics.
Mnemonicrepresentsasingleinstructionthatistranslatedintothebinarycodeofmachinelanguage.
Mnemonicsareeasiertousethanmachinelanguageinstructions.
Forexample,themnemonic"MUL"tellsthecomputerto"MULtiply".
COBOL–CommonBusinessOrientedLanguage-
Itisacommonlanguageusedforprogramsneededtodesignbusinessandcommercialsystems.
FORTRAN– FORmulaTRANslator–
Developedspecificallyforengineeringandmathematicalapplications.
COMPILER–
Asoftwareprogramthatconverts(translates)acompletesoftwareprogramwritteninhigh-level
languageSOURCECODE(suchasPASCALorFORTRAN)intomachinelanguage.Theentiresource
codeisedited,compiled,andrunatonetimeascomparedtoan INTERPRETERthatisrunonelineat
atime.

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INTERPRETER–
Ahigh-levellanguagetranslatorthatconvertsindividualhigh-levelcomputerlanguageprogram
instructions(sourcecode)intomachineinstructions.Ittranslatesandexecuteseachstatementline-
by-lineduringtherunningoftheprogram.
ASSEMBLER-
Asoftwareprogramthatconverts(translates)eachsymbolicinstructionwritteninASSEMBLY
LANGUAGEintotheMACHINELANGUAGE(binarycode)ofacomputer.
INTERRUPT–
Asignalinformingaprogramthataneventhasoccurred.Whenaprogramreceivesaninterrupt
signal,ittakesaspecifiedaction(whichcanbetoignorethesignal).Interruptsignalscancausea
programtosuspenditselftemporarilytoservicetheinterrupt.
INTERRUPTHANDLER–
Alsoknownasatraphandler,aninterrupthandlerisasoftwareroutineperformedwhenaninterrupt
isreceivedbythecomputer.
INTERRUPTSOURCE–
Interruptsignalscancomefromavarietyofsources.Forexample,everykeystrokegeneratesan
interruptsignal.Interruptscanalsobegeneratedby otherdevices,suchasaprinter,toindicatethat
someeventhasoccurred.Thesearecalledhardwareinterrupts.Interruptsignalsinitiatedby
programsarecalledsoftwareinterrupts.Asoftwareinterruptisalsocalledatraporanexception.
INTERRUPTVECTOR–
Avectorismerelytheaddressoftheinterrupthandler.Wheninterruptoccurs,thechipautomatically
jumpstotheaddressstoredforthatinterrupt.Thereisatablekeptinthememoryofinterruptvector.
Aninterruptvectortableisatableofinterruptvectorsthatassociatesaninterrupthandlerwithan
interruptrequestinamachinespecificway.A dispatchtableisonemethodofimplementingan
interruptvectortable.
WhentheCPUisinterruptedbyaninterrupt,itlooksuptheinterrupthandlerintheinterruptvector
table,andtransferscontroltoit.
POLLINGSYSTEM–
Amethodofrepeatedlycheckingofadeviceneedstoaccessthecommunicationchannel.Themain
computerchecks,orpolls,eachdeviceonthechanneloneata timetoseeifithasanydatatosend.
Thecheckingofapartofcomputersystematintervals.
EXAMPLE:
Theoperatingsystemofacomputermaypollthekeyboardatintervalswhileaprogramis
running.ThisallowsthemachinetocheckiftheBREAKKEYofEXCAPEKEYispressed.
OJECTCODE–
Thecodeproducedbyacompilerorassemblerfromthesourcecode,usuallyintheformofmachine
languagethatacomputercanexecutedirectly,orsometimesinassemblylanguage.
Objectfilescontaincompactcode,oftencalled"binaries"
SOURCECODE–
Sourcecodeiswhataprogrammerwrites,butitisnotdirectlyexecutablebythecomputer.Itmust
beconvertedintomachinelanguagebycompilers,assemblersorinterpreters.

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BACKUPSOFTWARE–
TheBackupSoftwareconsistsofprogramsformakingduplicatecopiesofdate,filessuchdatabase,
mp3/4,digitalphotos,movies,oranythingelseontheharddriveorportabledeviceincaseof
accidentorcatastrophe.
DISKDEGRAGMENTER/DEFRAGMENATION–
DiskDefragmenterisacomputerprogramoratoolthatrearrangesthedataontheharddiskand
reunitesfragmentedfilesandthistechniqueiscommonlyknownasdefragmentation.Itimprovesthe
overallperformanceofthecomputer.
SCANDISK-
ScanDiskisaWindowsutilityusedtocheckharddiskforerrorsandtocorrectproblemsthatare
found.TheseerrorsoftenoccurwhenWindowslocksupandmustberestarted.
WORDPROCESSOR-
Wordprocessorisanapplicationsoftwareprogramcapableofcreating,storing,andprinting
documents.Unlikethestandardtypewriter,usersusingwordprocessorshavetheabilityofcreatinga
documentandmakinganytypeofchangesanywhereinthedocument.Thisdocumentcanalsobe
savedformodificationatalatertimeortobeopenedonanyothercomputerusingthesameword processor.
SPREADSHEET-
Spreadsheetisadatafilemadeupofrowsandcolumnsthatareusedtosortdataandallowauser
tomanipulateandarrangedataeasily,commonlynumericaldata.Whatmakesa
spreadsheetsoftwareprogrammostuniqueisitsabilitytocalculatevaluesusing
mathematicalformulasandthedatainthecells.
DATABASE-
Adatabaseisasuiteofsoftwareapplicationsthattogethermakeitpossibleforpeopleorbusinesses
tostore,modify,andextractinformationfromatable,groupoftableordatabase.
DESKTOPPUBLISHING-
DesktopPublishingsoftwareisanapplicationsoftwarethatproducesahighqualitydocument
containingtextandgraphicsformattedonasinglepage.Forexampledesktoppublishingisneededfor
creatingsuchprintedmaterialasbookcovers,brochure,fliers,etc.
COMMUNICATIONSOFTWARE-
Communicationsoftwareisusedtoprovideremoteaccessto systemsandexchangefilesand
messagesintext,audioand/orvideoformatsbetweendifferentcomputersor userIDs.This
includesterminalemulators,filetransferprograms,chatandinstantmessagingprograms
COMPUTERAIDEDDESIGNSOFTWARE-CAD
Theuseofcomputerprogramsandsystemstodesigndetailedtwo-orthree-dimensionalmodelsof
physicalobjects,suchasmechanicalparts,buildings,andmolecules.

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INTEGRATEDSOFTWARE-
Acollectionofcomputerprogramsdesignedtoworktogetherto handleanapplication,eitherby passing
datafromonetoanotherorascomponentsofasinglesystem.Acollectionofcomputer programsthatworkasa
unitwithaunifiedcommandstructuretohandleseveralapplications,suchas
wordprocessing,spreadsheets,data-basemanagement,graphics,anddatacommunications.
PRESENTATIONSOFTWARE-
A presentationprogramisacomputersoftwarepackageusedtodisplayinformation,normallyin
theformofaslideshow.Ittypicallyincludesthreemajorfunctions:aneditorthatallowstexttobe
insertedandformatted,amethodforinsertingandmanipulatinggraphicimagesandaslide-show
systemtodisplaythecontent.

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ORGANIZATIONOFDATA ChapterThree
ALPHANUMERIC–
alphanumericarecomprisedbythecombinedsetofthe26alphabeticcharacters,A toZ,andthe10
Arabicnumerals,0to9.Insomeusages,thealphanumericcharactersetmayincludebothupperand
lowercaseletters,punctuationmarks,andsymbols(suchas@,&,and*,forexample).
FIELD–
Afieldisacolumnordataitemwhichgivesthesameinformationofasamedatatypeforallthe records.
EXAMPLE:
EmployeeID:Emp-099
RECORD–
A recordisacollectionofmanyrelatedfields.
FILE–
Afileisacollectionofmanyrelatedrecords.
DATABASE-
Acollectionofsimilarinformationstoredinafile,suchasadatabaseofaddresses.Thisinformation
maybecreatedandstoredinadatabasemanagementsystem(DBMS).
DATA-BASEMANAGEMENTSYSTEM(DBMS)–
Asoftwareprogramthatcontrolsandsupervisestheupdating,editing,andexecutionofitemsfrom
multiplefilesinadatabaseenvironment.
RELATIONALDATABASE–
Arelationaldatabaseisasetoftablescontainingdatafittedintopredefinedcategories.Eachtable
(whichissometimescalledarelation)containsoneormoredatacategoriesincolumns.Eachrow
containsauniqueinstanceofdataforthecategoriesdefinedbythecolumns.
EXAMPLE:
atypicalbusinessorderentrydatabasewouldincludeatablethatdescribedacustomerwithcolumns
forname,address,phonenumber,andsoforth.Anothertablewoulddescribeanorder:product,
customer,date,salesprice,andsoforth.
PRIMARYKEY–
Primarykeyisafieldthatisuniquetoaparticularrecord.
EXAMPLE:
InvoiceNoisaprimarykey
FOREIGNKEY–
A foreignkeyisacolumnorcombinationofcolumnsthatisusedtoestablishandenforcealink
betweenthedataintwotablesduplicatingprimarykeyonthebasetabletolinktable.
ARRAY

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Anarray,alsoknownasavectororlist,isoneofthesimplestdatastructuresincomputer
programming.Arrysholdafixednumberofequally-sizeddataelements,generallyofthesamedata type.
Example:
ComputerMarks[1]=75
FILEORGANIZATION–
Themethodbywhichtherecordsareorganizedinafileiscalledfileorganization.
SERIALFILEORGANIZATION–
Inserialfileorganizationmethod,eachrecordisstoredoneafteranotherwithnologicalorder.
RecordsarejustaddedattheEOF(EndOfFile)
SEQUENTIALFILEORGANIZATION–
Therecordsinthisfileorganizationmethodarestoredoneaftertheotherinalogicalorder.It will
usuallybeinascendingorderoftheprimarykey.
INDEXEDSEQUENTIALFILEORGANIZATION–
Theindexedsequentialfilehasitsownindex.Theindexcontainsentriesconsistingofthekeytoeach
recordstoredonthefileandthecorrespondingdiskaddressforthatrecord.
DIRECTACCESSFILE–
Indirectaccessmethod,itallowstherecordpointertogodirectlytothedesiredrecord.Itisthe
abilitytoaccessanygivenrecordinstantlythathasmadecomputersystemconvenient.
MASTERFILE–
Apermanentfile,periodicallyupdated,thatservesasareliablesourceofdata.
EXAMPLE:
Employeedetailmasterfile,bookdetailmasterfileetc.
TRANSACTIONFILE–
Transactionfliescontaindatathatrecordevents.Recordsinatransactionfileareplacedintimeorder
andareprocessedbyacomputertoupdaterelatedmasterfilerecords.
EXAMPLE:
Inbusiness,transactionsareplacinganorder,updatingthestock,makingapaymentetc.
BACKFILES–
Backupcopiesoffilesarekeptincasetheoriginalfileisdamagedorlostandcannotbeused.Back
shouldbekeptindiskettesormagnetictapewithregularintervals
ARCHIVING–
Archivingis theprocessof backingupdatasothatitisnotlostinthecaseofaharddiskfailure.Files
haveanarchiveattributethatisremovedwhenafilehasbeenbackedupandthenreplacedwhena
filehasbeenchanged.
SORTING–
Sortingis anyprocessofarrangingitemsinsomesequenceand/orin differentsets,andaccordingly
MERGING–
Itisatechniquetocombinetwoseparatesetsofdataintooneset.Theresultingdatamaybeintheir
originalorderorre-sequencedbykeyfieldorsomeotherattributeofthedata.
FILEGENERATIONS-

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Itisabackupfilesystemofprovenreliabilityinwhichfilesarekeptinthreecopies.Thefather,son
andgrandfatherfiles.Thesonfileisthemostrecentcopy.Afterthesonfilehasbeeninuseforsome
time,anewrecordingwillbemade.Thiswillbenewsonfile,andtheoldsonfilewillberenamesas
father,andtheoldfatherfilebecomesgrandfather.Thisschemeensuresfilebackupandcanbe
easilymaintained.

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DATAINTEGRITY ChapterFour
TRANSCRIPTIONERROR–
Thiserroroccurswhenthesourcedocumentismisreadormistyped.Theusualmethodofdata captureiskey-
to-disksotthatmanyerrorscanoccur.Badhandwritingcanalsobeconfusingforthe dataentryoperator.
EXAMPLE:
EmployeeIDS550canbeenteredas5SS0
TRANSPOSITIONERROR–
Transpositionerroroccurswhentwodigitsorlettersareswappedaround.Ithappenswhentypingthe
datainhighspeed.
EXAMPLE:
Yearofdataofbirth1998canbeentered1989by mistake.
VALIDATION–
Validationchecksaremadeondatatomakesurethatthedataisacceptedorvalid.Thecomputer
programdoesthevalidationandtheuserisnotifiedthroughascreenmessageifanyunusualdatahas
beenentered.
TYPECHECK–
Thischeckmakesurethattherightdatatypehas beenentered.Suchdatatypeofcheckscandetect
numberswherecharactersshouldhavebeenenteredandviceversa.
RANGECHECK–
Rangechecksareperformedonnumbersanddatetomakesurethattheyliewithinaspecifiedrange.
LENGTHCHECK–
A certainspecificlengthisrequired,thatcontainsafixednumberofcharacterswhichcannotbe
exceeded.
PRESENCECHECK–
Enteringdataintoadatabasethepresenceofsomefieldsmaybecompulsory.Since,theycannotbe leftblank.
HASHTOTAL–
Hashtotalsarethetotalsofaspecificsetofnumbersthathavebeenenteredintothecomputer.Itis
meaninglesstotal.
CONTROLCHECK–
AControltotalislikeahashtotalexceptthatthetotalhassomemeanings.
CHECKDIGIT–
A decimal(oralphanumeric)digitaddedtoanumberforthepurposeofdetectingthesortsoferrors
humanstypicallymakeondataentry.
LOOKUPTABLES–
Lookuptablesareusedto makesurethatthedataenteredisactuallyidentifiedwiththeoriginallistof
codealreadystoredinthecomputer.

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PARITYERROR–
amethodfordetectingerrorsindatacommunicationsorwithinacomputersystembycountingthe
numberofonesorzerosperbyteorperword,includingaspecialcheckbit,toseeif thevalueiseven
orodd.
Abitaddedtoabinarycodethatindicatesparityandisusedtochecktheintegrityofdata.
VERIFICATION–
Dataverificationinvolvescheckingwhatisintheinputdocument(sourcedocument/Original
document)to seeifitisexactlythesameaswhatisenteredintothecomputer.
PROOFREADING–
Proofreadinginvolvescarefullycheckingwhathasbeentypedinthecomputerbyusingprintoutand
comparewiththeoriginaldocument.
DOUBLEENTRYMETHOD(Key-to-disk-systems)–
Doubleentrymethodisinvolvestwopeopletypinginthesamedataandonlyif thedataisidentical
willitbeacceptedforfurtherprocessing.

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ALGORITHMDESIGN&PROGRAMMINGCONCEPTS ChapterFive
ALGORITHM–
Analgorithmisaseriesofinstructionsorstepsforthesolutionofaspecificproblem.
TOPDOWNDESIGN–
Ahardwareand/orsoftwaredesignapproachthatstartsatthemostgenerallevelofamachineor
softwareprogram.Itproceeds,step-by-step,tolowerlevels,addingdetailasthedesignprogresses.
PROGRAMFLOWCHART–
A flowchartisapictorialpresentationofanalgorithmoraprocess.
SEQUENCECONTROLSTRUCTURE–
Thesequencecontrolstructureisthemoststraightforward.Onestatementsimplyfollowsanotherin
sequence.
SELECTIONCONTROLSTRUCTURE–
Theselectioncontrolstructureisusedtomakelogicaldecisions.
REPETITIVE/ITERATIVECONTROLSTRUCTURE–
TherepetitionorIterativecontrolstructureisaloopingmechanism.
PSEUDOCODES–
Apseudo-codeisanEnglish-likenon-standardlanguagethatletsyoustateyoursolutionwithmore
precision.Apseudo-codeisusefulforwritinginstructionsinplainEnglishbeforetheyaretranslated
intoaprogramminglanguage.
MODULARPROGRAMMING–
Breakingaprogramdownintosmallertasksmostreadilysolvescomplicatedproblems.Thesesmaller
unitescanbecalledmodules.Eachmoduleperformsaspecificfunction.Themodulescanbetogether
whenrequired.
COMPILATIONERROR–
Compilationerrorreferstoastatewhenacompilerfailstocompileapieceofcomputerprogram
sourcecode,eitherduetoerrorsfromthecompileritself,ormorelikelysyntaxerrorsinthecode.A
compilationerrormessageoftenhelpsprogrammersdebuggingthesourcecodeforpossiblesyntax errors.
LOOP–
Aloopisasequenceofstatementswhichisspecifiedoncebutwhichmaybecarriedoutseveraltimes
insuccession.Thecode"inside"theloopisobeyedaspecifiednumberoftimes,oronceforeachofa
collectionofitems,oruntilsomeconditionismet.
SYNTAXERROR–
Errorsthatoccur,whenthesyntaxoftheprogramortherulesdefiningthelegalsequenceofthe
symbolicelements,inalanguagearenotcorrect.
SEMENTICERROR–
Semanticerrorsarecausedbywrongapplicationofthelanguage.
LINKINGERRORS-
Theseerrorsoccurwhenthesourceprogramhasnotbeenlinkedcorrectlywithalibraryroutine,
externalfileordatabase.

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RUNTIMEERRORS–
Theseerrorsoccurwhiletheprogramisbeingrun.
SYSTEMFAILUREERROR–
Theseerrorsoccurwhentheprogramstopsabruptly,midwayduetonospecificfaultoftheuser.

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SYSTEMDEVELOPMENTLIFECYCLE ChapterSix
STEPSINVOLVESINSYSTEMDEVELOPMENTLIFECYCLE–
1. SystemAnalysis
2. SystemDesign
3. System Testing
4. System Documentation
5. SystemImplementation
6. SystemMaintenance
SYSTEMANALYISTGOTRHOUGHTHEFOLLOWINGPROCESSES-
• Factfinding
• Investigationandproblemdefinition
• Conductafeasibilitystudy
• Prepareafeasibilityreport
FOURWAYSOFFACTFINDINGSINANALYSISPHASE-
INTERVIEWING–
Interviewingpeoplebyaskingquestionsfromtheseniormanages,middlemanagers,operational
managersandotherstaffabouttheirroutineworkandproblems.
QUESTIONNAIRES–
alistofquestions,usuallyprinted,submittedforrepliesthatcanbeanalyzedforusableinformation.
OBSERVATION–
Observationisanactivitytonoticingthestaffattheirwork.
INSPECTION–
Examiningalltypeofdocuments,screendisplays,andfiles,thosearebeingusedinpresentsystem.
FEASIBILITYSTUDY–
A feasibilitystudyisapreliminarystudyundertakentodecideanddocumentaproject'spossibility.
Theresultsofthisstudyareusedtomakeadecisionwhethertoproceedwiththeproject,orchartit.
Itismainlyconsistofacost/benefitanalysis.
FEASIBILITYREPORT–
Thefeasibilityreportisawrittenreportgiventothedirectorofthecompanyandisreallyasummary
oftheresultsofthefeasibilitystudy.
DATASTORAGEMETHODS-
1. Decideonthenumberoffiles(tables)andfieldsineachtable.
2. Decideonthedatatypeandlengthofeachfield
3. Decideonthekeyfieldsofeachtable
4. Decideonthepropertiesofeachfield
5. Drawtherelationshipbetweenthetables.
DIRECTIMPLEMENTATION–
Inthismethod,onapre-decideddatetheusersstartusingthesystem.Thismethodisonlyusedfor
smallcomputersystems.
PHASEDIMPLEMENTATION–
Eachjobisintroducedseparatelyinthismethod,ratherthanalljobsbeingintroducedtogether.
PARALLELIMPLEMENTATION–
Inparallelrunning,thenewsystemis runalongsidetheexistingsystem.Forsomereasonifthenew
systemfailstoworkasexpected,thenwestillhavethechancetousetheprecioussystem.

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TECHNICALDOCUMENTATION
Documentationforaprogrammerorsystemanalystneededwhenasystemisbeingupgradedor
improvedincludingprogramflowcharttestplansdatastructure,softwarerequirements,hardware
requirements.

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COMMERCIAL&GENERALDATAPROCESSING ChapterSeven
REALTIMEPROCESSING–
Inrealtimeprocessing,thesystemisautomaticallyupdatedimmediatelywhentransactionsoccur.
EXAMPLE:
Trafficlightsystem,ATMetc.
BATCHPROCESSING–
aformofdataprocessinginwhichanumberofinputjobsaregroupedforprocessingduringthesame
machinerun.Thejobs/transactionsarecollectedandthenprocessedinonegoratherthanina
numberofparts.
EXAMPLE:
UtilityBills,Payslipsetc.
TRANSACTIONPROCESSING–
Thisprocessingisonlyundertakenwhenneededforaspecialsituationandnotinsettimeintervals.
EXAMPLE:
Salesinvoices
MULTITASKING–
Thetechniqueofusingseveralapplicationsprograms(tasks)inacomputersystemoronseveral
terminalsinanetworkatthesametime.Multitaskingcansimultaneouslyworkwithseveralprograms
orinterrelatedtasksthatsharememories,codes,buffers,andfiles.
MULTIUSER–
Thetermdescribesthecapabilityofacomputersystemtobeoperatedatmorethanoneterminalat
thesametime.
EXPERTSYSTEM–
Anexpertsystem,alsoknownasaknowledgebasedsystem,isacomputerprogramthatcontains
someofthesubject-specificknowledgeofoneormorehumanexperts.
Anexpertsystemisa computersystemorprogramthatusesartificialintelligencetechniquesto
solveproblemsthatordinarilyrequireaknowledgeablehuman.
EXAMPLE:
UsedinMedicaldiagnosissystem,Flightsimulationetc.
COMPUTERMODELLONG–
A computersimulationoracomputermodelisacomputerprogramthatattemptstosimulatean
abstractmodelofaparticularsystem.
EXAMPLE:
Computersimulationshavebecomeausefulpartofmathematicalmodellingofmanynatural
systemsinphysics(ComputationalPhysics),chemistryandbiology,humansystemsineconomics,
psychology,andsocialscienceandintheprocessofengineeringnewtechnology,togaininsightinto
theoperationofthosesystems.

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MATHEMATICALMODELS–
A mathematicalmodelisanabstractmodelthatusesmathematicallanguagetodescribethe
behaviourofasystem.
EXAMPLE:
Mathematicalmodelsareusedparticularlyinthenaturalsciencesandengineeringdisciplines
(suchasphysics,biology,andelectricalengineering)butalsointhesocialsciences(suchas
economics,sociologyandpoliticalscience);physicists,engineers,computerscientists,andeconomists
usemathematicalmodelsmostextensively.
SIMULATIONMODELING–
Simulationsoftwarecanbeusedinsimulationmodeling.A full-scaleflightsimulatorofthetypeused
totrainpilotsprovidesgraphicsdisplayofwhatisvisiblefromtheplane.
ARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCE
Thisistheareaofcomputerscience,focusingoncreatingmachinesthatcanengageonbehaviorsthat
humansconsiderintelligent.Theabilitytocreateintelligentmachines,creatingsystemswhichcan
mimichumanthought,understandspeech,beatthebesthumanchessplayer,andcountlessother
featsneverbeforepossible.

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LOGICGATES ChapterEight
LOGICGATE–
Adevice,usuallyanelectricalcircuit,thatperformsoneormorelogicaloperationsononeormore
inputsignals.Logicgatesarethebuildingblocksofdigitaltechnology.
Example:AND,NAND,OR,NORetc.
TRUTHTABLE–
Atablelistingthetruth-valuesofapropositionthatresultfromallthepossiblecombinationsofthe truth-
valuesofitscomponents.
ELECTRONICCIRUIT–
Anelectroniccircuitconnectsactiveandpassiveelectroniccomponentssuch
asresistors,capacitors,microprocessors,transistorsorvacuumtubes.Theelectroniccircuitsare
typicallybuiltusingaprintedcircuitboard(PCB)thatisusedtomechanicallysupportandelectrically
connectelectroniccomponents.
DIGITALCIRUIT–
Digitalelectronicsareelectronicssystemsthatusedigitalsignals.Digitalelectronicsare
representationsofBooleanalgebraandareusedincomputers,mobilephones,andotherconsumer
products

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MONITORING&CONTROL ChapterNine
ANALOGCOMPUTER
Analogcomputersrepresentsthedataascontinuousmeasurementofphysicalpropertysuchas
Example:voltage,pressure,speedas opposedtocountingdiscretesignals.
ADC(Analog-to-DigitalConverter)-
ADCisadevicethatconvertsthecontinuousanalogsignaltoamulti-leveldigitalsignalwithout
alteringitscontent.
EXAMPLE:
Usedtoretrievedatausingsensors
ANALOGSIGNALS-
Varietyofsignalsandwavelengthsthatcanbetransmittedovercommunicationslinessuchasthe
soundofavoiceoverthephoneline.
DIGITALDATA-
Isdiscretedatawhichisunderstoodbyacomputerinaformofbinarynumbers(0‟sand1‟s).
Digitalsignalshavedistinctpulses.TheyareeitherONorOFF.Computertransmitsthissortofsignals.
DATA-LOGGING-
Itisthecollectionofdataautomaticallyoveracertainperiodoftime
EXAMPLE:
Weatherforecasting,Rainfallsetc.
REMOTESENSING-
Remotesensingisatechniqueusedto gatherinformation(size,color,location,temperature,
smoking)aboutanobjectoranareawithoutactuallytouchingit.
EXAMPLE:
TemperaturesensorusedinAir-condition
FEEDBACKLOOP-
Digitalcomputerreceivesthesignalfromthesensorandrespondaccordinglyinarecurringprocess
manner.Thereforethisprocessiscalledfeedbackloop.
EXAMPLE:
Computer,TemperaturesensorandADC
SENSOR–
Thisisamechanicaldevicesensitivetolight,temperature,radiationlevel,orthelike,thattransmitsa
signaltoameasuringorcontrolinstrument.
EXAMPLE:
Motionsensor,Temperaturesensor,HeatSensor,LightSensoretc.
MOTIONSENSOR–
Unlikemostsensors,thesearedigitalswitchesthatrecordatimewhentriggeredwithamovingobject
suchashumanbeingoravehicle.

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PRESSURESENSOR–
Pressuresensorcansenseairpressure,arterialbloodpressureandsomearesensitiveenoughto
monitortherespirationofmealwormsandchangesinosmoticpressure.Theycanalsobeusedas
pressurepadstobeusedinacomputercontrolledtrafficlightsystem.
pHSENSOR–
AversatilesensorusedinconjunctionwithapHelectrode.Itmakesacidbasetitrationcurveseasy
andtherearebiologicalapplicationsinmonitoringrespiration,photosynthesisorfermentation.
GASSENSOR–
A gassensorisananalogdevicewhichdetectsthepresenceof variousgaseswithinanarea,usually
aspartofasafetysystem.Thistypeofsensorisusedtodetectagasleakandinterfacewithacontrol
systemsoaprocesscanbeautomaticallyshutdown.
SOUNDSENSOR–
Thesoundlevelissensedthroughthissensor.Thesesensorscanbeusedto recordthelevelodsound
comingfromthebees,birdsorotheranimals.
HUMIDITYSENSOR–
Theairorsoilisfilledwithmoistureandthissensorisusedtodeterminetheamountofmoinsture present.
POSITIONSENSOR–
Theangleofaspindlecanbesensedautomaticallyusingapositionsensor.Whenrobotsareusedthis
sensorcouldbeused,tofeedbacktherobotposition.
ACTUATORS–
Actuatorsareakindofmotors.Thishardwaredevicereactsaccordingtosignalsgiventothemby
computers.Anactuatormotorwouldbeusedtoopenalatchinaheatedroomthenitgetstoohot.
STEPPERMOTOR–
Asteppermotorworksinaseriesofsmallsteps.Steppermotorsgenerallylookbiggerthanordinary
motorsandhaveseveralwirescomingoutofthem.Therotatorcanbeturnedthroughseveralangles.
Pulsessentfromthecomputerinstructthemotortoturnthroughtherequiredangle.
QUALITYCONTROL–
Anexampleofqualitycontrolcanbeseeninthemanufactureofpaper.Thethicknessof paperduring
itsmanufactureismonitored.Processcontrolisimportantforqualitycontrol.
AIRCRAFTRADAR–
Radarisanobjectdetectionsystemthatuseselectromagneticwavestoidentifytherange,altitude,
direction,orspeedofbothmovingandfixedobjectssuchasaircraft,ships,motorvehicles,weather
formations,andterrain.
ROBOT–
Astand-alonehybridcomputersystemthatperformsphysicalandcomputationalactivities.Capableof
performingmanydifferenttasks,itisamultiple-motiondevicewithoneormorearmsandjoints.
ARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCE-
Thisistheareaofcomputerscience,focusingoncreatingmachinesthatcanengageonbehaviorsthat
humansconsiderintelligent.Theabilitytocreateintelligentmachines,creatingsystemswhichcan
mimichumanthought,understandspeech,beatthebesthumanchessplayer,andcountlessother feats
neverbeforepossible.

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APPLICATION:
Robotsaredesignedformanypurposes.Inmanufacturing,theyareusedforwelding,riveting,
scrapingandpainting.Theyarealsodeployedfordemolition,fireandbombfighting,nuclearsite
inspection,industrialcleaning,laboratoryuse,medicalsurgery(seetelepresencesurgery),
agriculture,forestry,officemaildeliveryaswellasamyriadofothertasks.Increasingly,more
artificialintelligenceisbeingadded.Forexample,somerobotscanidentifyobjectsinapile,selectthe
objectsintheappropriatesequenceandassemblethemintoaunit.

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DATACOMMUNICATION&NETWORK ChapterTen
VIDEOCONFERENCING–
Avideoconferenceisaliveconnectionbetweenpeopleinseparatelocationsforthepurposeof
communication,usuallyinvolvingaudioandoftentextaswellasvideo.
SIMPLEX–
Adatatransmissionmodethatprovidestransmissioninonedirectiononly.
EXAMPLE:
Radio,TVetc.
HALF-DUPLEX–
Acommunicationsmodethatallowstransmissionandreceptionofdigitaldatabetweencomputers,
butnotsimultaneously.
EXAMPLE:
ATMMachine,Walkytalky
FULLDUPLEX–
Adatatransmissionmodethatprovidessimultaneousandindependenttransmissionandreception.A
conventionaltelephonecommunicationisanexampleofthistechnique.
EXAMPLE:
Telephones
TWISTEDPAIR-
Twistedpaircablingisa formofwiringinwhichtwoconductorsarewoundtogetherforthepurposes
ofcancelingoutelectromagneticinterference(EMI)fromexternalsourcesandcrosstalkfrom
neighboringwires.
COAXIALCABLE–
Coaxialcableisanelectricalcableconsistingofa roundconductingwire,surroundedbyaninsulating
spacer,surroundedbyacylindricalconductingsheath,usuallysurroundedbya finalinsulatinglayer (jacket).
OPTICALFIBER-
Fiberoptics(opticalfibers)arelong,thinstrandsofverypureglassaboutthediameterofahuman
hair.Theyarearrangedinbundlescalledopticalcablesandusedtotransmitlightsignalsoverlong
distances.
EXAMPLE:
Theyareusedinmedicalimaging,mechanicalengineeringinspectionand
communicationsystem.
OPTICALSWITCH
Intelecommunication,anopticalswitchisaswitchthatenablessignalsinopticalfibersorintegrated
opticalcircuits(IOCs)tobeselectivelyswitchedfromonecircuittoanother.
WAVES-
A waveisadisturbancethatpropagatesthroughspaceorspacetime,oftentransferringenergy

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INFRARED-
Alightthatissoredthatitisnotviewabletothenakedeye.Itusesthisinvisiblebeamoflightto transmitapre-
programmed'line-of-sight'signaltocertainelectroniccomponents.Itstypicaluse
involveswirelessdevicessuchasaTVremotecontroller.
RADIOWAVE-
Radiowavesareofelectromagneticwaveoccurringradiofrequencyportionoftheelectromagnetic
spectrum.Acommonusebyhumansistotransportinformationthroughtheatmosphereor outer
spacewithoutwires.
MICROWAVE-
Microwavesareelectromagneticwaveswithwavelengthslongerthanthoseofterahertz(THz)
frequencies,butrelativelyshortforradiowaves.Microwaveshavewavelengthsapproximatelyinthe
rangeof30cm(frequency=1GHz)to1mm(300GHz).
SATELLITETRANSMISSION-
anartificialearthsatellitethatfacilitatescommunications,asradio,television,andtelephone
transmissions,bymeansofthereflectionortheamplificationandretransmissionofsignalsbetween
stationsonearthorinspace.
NETWORKS–
Asystemcontaininganycombinationofcomputers,computerterminals,printers,audioorvisual
displaydevices,ortelephonesinterconnectedbytelecommunicationequipmentorcables:usedto
transmitorreceiveinformation.
LOCALAREANETWORK–
Asystemforlinkinganumberofmicrocomputers,terminals,workstations,etc.witheachotheror
withamainframecomputerinordertosharedata,printers,information,programs,disks,etc.;
usuallyconfinedtooneofficeorbuilding.
WIDEAREANETWORK–
Acomputernetworkthatspansarelativelylargegeographicalarea.
INTERNET–
Aninternationalconglomerationofinterconnectedcomputernetworks.Beguninthelate1960s,itwas
developedinthe1970stoallowgovernmentanduniversityresearcherstoshareinformation.The
Internetisnotcontrolledbyanysinglegroupororganization.Itsoriginalfocuswasresearchand
communications,butitcontinuestoexpand,offeringawidearrayofresourcesforbusinessandhome users.
INTRANET–
Anetworkofnetworksis calledInternet.
EXTRANET–
AnextranetisaprivatenetworkthatusesInternetprotocols,networkconnectivity,andpossiblythe
publictelecommunicationsystemtosecurelysharepartofanorganization'sinformationoroperations
withsuppliers,vendors,partners,customersorotherbusinesses.
GATEWAY–
softwareorhardwarethatlinkstwocomputernetworks.
SERVER-
Acomputersysteminanetworksharedbymultipleusers.Examplesincludemail,database,fax,web,
print,terminal,andvideoserversystems.TypicallyserversrunthespecializedNetworkOperating
Systems(NOS)whichcontrolnetworkresources.

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FILESERVER–
Acomputerthatmakesfilesavailabletoworkstationsonanetwork.
WEBSERVER–
AcomputerthatisresponsibleforacceptingHTTPrequestsfromclients,whichareknownasWeb
browsers,andservingthemHTTPresponsesalongwithoptionaldatacontents,whichusuallyareWeb
pagessuchasHTMLdocumentsandlinkedobjects(images,etc.).
PRINTSERVER–
A printserver,orprinterserver,isacomputerordevicetowhichoneormoreprintersare
connected,whichcanacceptprintjobsfromexternalclientcomputersconnectedtotheprintserver
overanetwork.Theprintserverthensendsthedatatotheappropriateprinterthatitmanages.
MODEM–
modem[modulator/demodulator],anexternaldeviceorinternalelectroniccircuitryusedtotransmit
andreceivedigitaldataoveracommunicationslinenormallyusedforanalogsignals.Amodem
attachedtoacomputerconvertsdigitaldatatoananalogsignalthatitusestomodulateacarrier
frequency.
HUBorSWITCH
AnEthernethuborconcentratorisadeviceforconnectingmultipletwistedpairorfiberoptic
Ethernetdevicestogether,makingthemactasasinglepieceorsegment.
MULTIPLEXING–
Amultiplexingisamethodthatencodesormultiplexesinformationfromtwoormoredatasources intoa
singlechannel.
MULTIPLEXER–
A multiplexerormuxisadevicethatselectsoneofmanydata-sourcesandoutputsthatsourceinto a
singlechannel.
EXAMPLE:
examplewouldbeusingamultiplexertoallow10computerstoattachwhereonlyonecould
getthetransmission.
STARTOPOLOGY–
Astarnetworkconsistsofonecentralswitch,huborcomputerwhichactsasamediumtotransmit messages.
RINGTOPOLOGY–
A ringnetworkisanetworktopologywhereeachnodeisconnectedtotwoothernodes,soasto
createaring.RingnetworkstendtobeinefficientwhencomparedtoStarnetworksbecausedata
musttravelthroughmorepointsbeforereachingitsdestination.
BUSTOPOLOGY–
anarrangementofcomputersonalocal-areanetworkinwhicheachcomputerisconnectedtoa
centralcablethroughwhichdataischanneled.
IP(INTERNETPROTOCOL)ADDRESS-
AnInternetProtocoladdressisauniquesetofnumbersusedtolocateanothercomputerona
network.TheformatofanIPaddressisa32-bitstringoffournumbersseparatedbyperiods.Each
numbercanbefrom0to255(i.e.,1.154.10.266).

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NEWSGROUPS–
adiscussiongrouponaspecifictopic,maintainedonacomputernetwork.
WWW–
TheWorldWideWebisasystemofinterlinked,hypertextdocumentsthatrunsovertheInternet.
WithaWebbrowser,auserviewsWebpagesthatmaycontaintext,images,andothermultimedia
andnavigatesbetweenthemusinghyperlinks.
ELECTRONICMAIL–
Electronicmailgenerallycalled'e-mail'messagesfromoneindividualtoanothersentvia
telecommunicationslinksbetweencomputersorterminals.Thisisastoreandforwardmethodof
composing,sending,storing,andreceivingmessagesoverelectroniccommunicationsystems.
SEARCHENGINES–
searchengineistechnicallythesoftwareandalgorithmsusedtoperformasearch,thetermhas
becomesynonymouswiththeWebsiteitself.Forexample,GoogleisamajorsearchsiteontheWeb,
butratherthanbeingcalledthe"Googlesearchsite,"itiscommonlyknownasthe"Googlesearch
engine
EXAMPLE:
SomepopularsearchenginesareAltaVista,Google,HotBot,Yahoo!,WebCrawler,andLycos.
REMOTELOGIN–
Remoteloginreferstoanymethodofcontrollinga computerfromaremotelocation.
Softwareallowstousethedistantcomputerwhenitisdifficultorimpracticaltobephysicallyneara
systeminordertouseit.
PROTOCOL–
A protocolisaruleorstandardthatcontrolsorenablestheconnection,communication,anddata
transferbetweentwocomputingendpoints.
FTP–
FileTransferProtocol.Aformatandsetofrulesfortransferringfilesfromahosttoaremote
computer.
HTML-
HypertextMarkupLanguage.AstandardoftextmarkupconventionsusedfordocumentsontheWorld
WideWeb.Browsersinterpretthecodestogivethetextstructureandformatting(suchasbold,blue, oritalic).
HTTP–
HypertextTransferProtocol.AcommonsystemusedtorequestandsendHTMLdocumentsonthe
WorldWideWeb.ItisthefirstportionofallURLaddressesontheWorldWideWeb
EXAMPLE:
http://www.cie.org
TCP(TransmissionControlProtocol)–
Aconnection-orientedprotocolthattransmitsdatainbytestreams.Datais transmittedinpackets
calledTCPsegments,whichcontainTCPheadersanddata.TCPisa“reliable?Protocolbecauseituses
check-sumstoverifydataintegrityandhand-shakingtomakesuretransmitteddataisreceived intact.

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TCP/IP(TransmissionControlProtocol/InternetProtocol)–
Thiscommunicationsprotocolisusedfordataexchangebetweendiversecomputerhardwareand
operatingsystems
HYPERLINK–
Textoranimagethatisconnectedbyhypertextcodingtoadifferentlocation.Byselectingthetextor
imagewithamouse,thecomputer“jumpsto”(ordisplays)thelinkedtext.
HANDSHAKING–
Exchangeofsignalsbetweentwodevicesornodestoestablishcommunicationiscalledhandshaking.
EXAMPLE:
ComputerandPrinter
ISP–
AnorganizationwhichprovidesaccesstotheInternettypicallyforafee.Allmajormetropolitanareas
intheworldhavenumerousindividualISPswhichwillprovideInternetservice.
BANDWIDTH–
BandwidthisaamountofdatatransferredfromISPtotheuserwithinthespecifiedtimeperiod.
DIAL-UPCONNECTION-
Dial-upInternetconnectionisaformofInternetaccessthatusestelephonelines.Theuser's
computerorrouterusesanattachedmodemconnectedtoatelephonelinetodialintoanInternet
serviceprovider's(ISP)nodetoestablishamodem-to-modemlink,whichisthenusedto
routeInternetProtocolpacketsbetweentheuser'sequipmentandhosts.
BROADBAND-
Thisreferstohigh-speeddatatransmissioninwhichasinglecablecancarryalargeamountofdataat
once.ThemostcommontypesofInternetbroadbandconnectionsarecablemodems(whichusethe
sameconnectionascableTV)andDSLmodems(whichuseyourexistingphoneline).
WAP–
WAPisanopeninternationalstandardforapplicationsthatusewirelesscommunication.Itsprincipal
applicationistoenableaccesstotheInternetfromamobilephoneorPDA.
WiFi–
Shortfor"WirelessFidelity,orHighFidelity,whichreferstohigh-qualityaudioorsurroundsound.Wi-
FireferstowirelessnetworkcomponentsthatarebasedononeoftheWi-FiAlliance's802.11
standards.
URL(UniformResourceLocator)–
AUniformResourceLocator,URL,orWebaddress,isastandardizedaddressforsomeresource(such
asadocumentorimage)ontheInternet(orelsewhere).
UPLOAD-
Theprocessoftransferringinformationfromacomputertoawebsite(orotherremotelocationona
network).Totransferinformationfromacomputertoawebsite(orotherremotelocationona
network).
Telecommuting–
Telecommutingisworkingfromaremotelocationusingcomputers,telephones,facsimilemachines,
andotherremotecapabilities,ratherthancommutingviaautomobileorothermodeof transportations.

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BenefitsofTelecommuting:
• ConservingEnergy
• PreservingtheEnvironment
• ImprovingWorkerandPublicSafety,and
• EnhancingFamilyValues
TELECONFERENCING-
Teleconferenceistheliveexchangeofinformationamongpersonsandmachinesremotefromone
anotherbutlinkedbyatelecommunicationssystem.Aremote“face-to-facechat,”whentwoormore
peopleusingawebcamandanInternettelephoneconnectionchatonline.Thewebcamenablesboth
livevoiceandvideo.
VIDEOCONFERENCING–
Videoconferencingisa communicationstechnologythatintegratesvideoandvoicetoconnectremote
userswitheachotherasiftheywereinthesameroom.Eachuserneedsacomputer,webcam,
microphone,andbroadbandinternetconnectionforparticipationinvideoconferencing.Usersseeand
heareachotherinrealtime,allowingnaturalconversationsnotpossiblewithvoice-only
communicationstechnology.
WORKSTATION–
Theworkareaand/orequipmentusedforcomputeroperations,includingcomputer-aideddesign
(CAD).Theequipmentgenerallyconsistsofamonitor,keyboard,printerand/orplotter,andother
outputdevices.
BLUETOOTH-
Radiotechnologythatconnectselectronicdeviceswithoutusingacable.Dataandvoicecanbe
exchangedat rangesofupto10meterswithouttheneedfordevicestobelineduptogether
FAX-
Alsoknownasafacsimile,telecopying,ortelefacsimile,afaxisatransmissionofgraphicsand/or
textoverthephoneline.
NODE–
Innetworks,aprocessinglocation.Anodecanbeacomputerorsomeotherdevice,suchasaprinter.
Everynodehasauniquenetworkaddress,sometimescalledaDataLinkControl(DLC)addressor
MediaAccessControl(MAC)address.
ROUTER–
Acomputerornetworkdevicewhichtransferspacketsofdatafromonenetworktoanother.
DOWNLOAD–

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COMPUTERSYSTEMSECURITY ChapterEleven
VIRUS–
Computervirusisasmallsoftwareprogramsthatisdesignedto spreadfromonecomputertoanother
corruptordeletedataonthehard-disk.Virusesaremosteasilyspreadbyattachmentsine-mail
messagesorinstantmessagingmessages.
ANTI-VIRUS–
Antivirussoftwareconsistsofcomputerprogramsthatattempttoidentify,thwartandeliminate
computervirusesandothermalicioussoftware
PASSWORD–
awordorotherstringofcharacters,sometimeskeptsecretorconfidential,thatmustbesuppliedbya
userinordertogainfullorpartialaccesstoamultiusercomputersystemoritsdataresources.
HACKING–
Un-authorizeaccessofdatainanycomputerusingdifferentcommunicationmediaillegallyiscalled
Hacking.
SOFTWARECOPYRIGHT–
Copyrightisamechanismtopreventtheunauthorizedcopyingofthesoftware.Itisalegaltermthat
referstotheauthorofanoriginalpieceofworkbeingthesoleownerofthatwork,whichgivesthat
persontherighttore-publishoralterthatworkhowevertheylike.
ENCRYPTION–
Theprocessoftransmittingscrambleddatasothatonlyauthorizedrecipientscanunscrambleit.For
instance,encryptionisusedtoscramblecreditcardinformationwhenpurchasesaremadeoverthe
Internet.
BACKUPS–
1.ThetermBackupmeanstocopyfilestoanothermediumsuchasaflashdrive,adiskdriveortape
driveasaprecautionincasethefirstmediumsuchasharddiskfails.Filesshouldalwaysbebacked
upregularlyaseventhemostreliablecomputercanbreakdowneventually.Filesarebackedupusing
operatingsystemcommandsorwithabackupsoftwareutilityprogram.TheBackupprogramwill
usuallycompressthedatasothatbackupitselfrequireslessspace.
2.Backupistheprocessofcopyingfilesordatabasessothattheywillbesavedinasecondary
storagedevicesuchasharddisk,floppydiskortapebackupincaseoflossofdataduetocomputer
failureorotherdisasters.
FIREWALL-
Asetofsecurityprogramsthatprotectacomputerfromoutsideinterferenceoraccessviathe
Internet.Firewallscaneitherbehardwareand/orsoftwarebased.
ELECTRONICSCABBING
Adaptedfromtheslangtermscab(astrike-breakeroronewhocrossesastrikelinetoworkinplace
ofstrikingemployees),electronicscabbingreferstothepracticeusedbymanagersandother
executiveswhencomputernetworksareusedtotransferelectronicdocuments(e.g.,accounting,
clerical,wordprocessing,databases,records)toanon-strikingworkforce

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THESOCIALEFFECTSOFINFORMATIONSYSTEMS ChapterTwelve
DATAPROTECTIONACT–
TheDataProtectionAct (DPA)isaUnitedKingdomActofParliamentthatprovidesalegalbasisand
allowingfortheprivacyandprotectionofdataofindividualsintheUK.
THEPRINCIPLESOFDATAPROTECTIONACT-
1. Personaldatashallbeprocessedfairlyandlawfullyand,inparticular,shallnotbeprocessed unless-
2. atleastoneoftheconditionsinSchedule2ismet,and
3. inthecaseofsensitivepersonaldata,atleastoneoftheconditionsinSchedule3is alsomet.
4. Personaldatashallbeobtainedonlyforoneormorespecifiedandlawfulpurposes,andshall
notbefurtherprocessedinanymannerincompatiblewiththatpurposeorthosepurposes.
5. Personaldatashallbeadequate,relevantandnotexcessiveinrelationtothepurposeor
purposesforwhichtheyareprocessed.
6. Personaldatashallbeaccurateand,wherenecessary,keptuptodate.
7. Personaldataprocessedforanypurposeorpurposesshallnotbekeptforlongerthanis
necessaryforthatpurposeorthosepurposes.
8. PersonaldatashallbeprocessedinaccordancewiththerightsofdatasubjectsunderthisAct.
9. Appropriatetechnicalandorganisationalmeasuresshallbetakenagainstunauthorisedor
unlawfulprocessingofpersonaldataandagainstaccidentallossordestructionof,ordamage
to,personaldata.
10. PersonaldatashallnotbetransferredtoacountryorterritoryoutsidetheEuropeanEconomic
Areaunlessthatcountryorterritoryensuresanadequatelevelofprotectionfortherightsand
freedomsofdatasubjectsinrelationtotheprocessingofpersonaldata.
ENVIRONMENTALISSUES–
• ReduceEnergyConsumption
Computersarecapableofhandlingandcontrollingmanysystemsusedinofficeand
factories.Forexample,thecomputercancontroltheheatingsystemusedinafactory.
Itwillheatonlytheusedroomssavingahugeamountofenergy.
• ReduceWastage
Thisismainlyusedinindustrialprocesswherethecomputercontrolsmostofthe
processingthattakesplace.Thishelpsaccurateworkandreducethewastage.
• ReducingCarPollution.
Withtheintroductionofnetworkspeopletendtoworkathomeratherthangoingtoan
office(Tele-Commuting).Thisreducesfuelconsumptionandcarpollution.
ETHICAL,MORALANDSOCIALISSUES

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• SoftwareTheft
Manypeoplehavesoftwareintheirharddisks,whichhasnotbeenpurchasedby
them.AccordingtotheDesignsandPatentsActitisacriminaloffencetocopyorsteal software.
• Hacking
Thismeansgainingillegalaccesstosomeoneelse‟scomputersystem.
• Privacy
ThoughthereisaDataProtectionActmostofthepeopleareunawareofit.Becauseof
thenetworksystemstheconceptofdataprivacyislost.
• JobLosses
Withthenewsystemsandsoftwarelesspeoplearerequiredintheoffices.Computers
replacehumans,makingmorepeopleunemployed.

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EMPLOYEMENTINTHEITFIELD ChapterThirteen
SYSTEMANALYST–
Thepersonresponsibleforthedevelopmentofaninformationsystem.Systemsanalystsdesignand
modifysystemsbyturninguserrequirementsintoasetoffunctionalspecifications,whicharethe
blueprintofthesystem.
SOFTWAREENGINEER–
A personwhodesignsandprogramssystem-levelsoftware,suchasoperatingsystems,database
managementsystems(DBMSs)andembeddedsystems.
WEBDESIGNER–
ApersonwhocreatesaWebsite.WebdesignersmayuseWebauthoringsoftwareoranHTMLeditor
tocreatetheactualpages,ortheymaydesigntheoveralllookandletaWebmasterdotheactual coding.
SYSTEMMANAGER–
Thepersonwhomanagescomputersystemsinanenterprise,whichmayincludeanyandallofthe
followingfunctions:softwaredistributionandupgrading,userprofilemanagement,versioncontrol,
backup&recovery,printerspooling,jobscheduling,virusprotectionandperformanceandcapacity
planning.
DATAPROCESSINGMANAGER–
TheDataProcessingManagerisresponsiblefortheschedulingandoperationofmainframecomputer
processingproductiontoprovideefficient,effective,andtimelyservicetotheBank.
ThepositionofDataProcessingManagerdirectsthetechnicalsupporteffortswhichincludes
responsibilityforallrelatedcomputersystemsoftware,hardware,anddatabaseadministration
SOFTWAREPROGRAMMER–
A programmerorsoftwaredeveloperissomeonewhoprogramscomputers,thatis,onewhowrites
computersoftware.Thetermcomputerprogrammercanrefertoaspecialistinoneareaofcomputer
programmingorwritescodeformanykindsofsoftware.

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