HISTORY: INDIAN ARCHITECTURE 2.0

INDIAN
ARCHITECTURE
PRESENTED BY:
KIM MOLINA
MAISIE RIVERA

 began with humble caves and squat flat-roofed
temples
 evolved over the centuries
 standard arrangement involved a huge walled
complex with massive decorative gateway
entrances to a sacred space of lesser shrines
surrounded by the main temple and its
monumental series of towers
HINDU ARCHITECTURE

 design is popular in temples across the world from
New Delhi to Malibu, California.
 essential elements of the style:
 precise and harmonious geometry when viewed
from all four sides and above
 the square form and grid ground plans
 soaring towers
 elaborate decorate sculpture which includes gods,
worshippers, erotic scenes, animals, and floral and
geometric patterns

 1st century CE:
 a new type of worship known as Bhakti or
devotional Hinduism spread across the Indian sub-
continent
 old Vedic gods were replaced by deities
like Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna,Brahma, and Devi
 worship required temples
BEGINNINGS:

 temples housed a sacred symbol of a particular
god, which could be decorated with sculptural
figures of them so recalling episodes from their
mythological adventures,
 provided a space for worshippers to leave
offerings and perform rituals such as bathing and
dancing by professional female dancers
(devadasi).

 temple
 considered the dwelling place of a particular god
(devalaya)
 a sacred place (tirtha) where heaven and earth meet
 as a god’s home, it must be a suitably splendid palace
(prasada)
 needs of the god would, additionally, be supervised by a
dedicated body of priests (pujaris) who attended the
temple.

Influenced by early Buddhist structures such as
the stupa, the first Hindu temples were built from
rock-cut caves and repeated the idea of relief panels
and the decorative gavaska window form. Then,
with the arrival of Gupta architecture in the 4th to
5th century CE, the first free-standing Hindu temples
were constructed with features such as towers and
projecting niches.
EARLY INFLUENCES:

The first materials used were wood and
terracotta, but architects gradually moved on to
brick and stone, especially sandstone, granite, schist,
and marble.

Udaigiri Cave Temples (5th Century CE)

Dasavatara Temple (6th Century CE)

The Hindu temple (mandir)
• laid out according to the eight cardinal directions
• a god representing each one (dikpala) may sometimes
be represented in sculpture on the temple’s exterior
• built on an elaborately carved platform (adhisthana),
the temple is often referred to in ancient Hindu texts
on architecture (the Vastu Shastras) as the sacred
mountain Meru or Kailasa, the dwelling of Shiva in the
Himalayas
HINDU TEMPLE FEATURES:

The Dome and Steeple: The steeple of the dome is
called ‘shikhara’ (summit) that represents the mythological
‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak. The shape of the dome
varies from region to region and the steeple is often in the
form of the trident of Shiva.
The Inner Chamber: The inner chamber of the temple
called ‘garbhagriha’ or ‘womb-chamber’ is where the image
or idol of the deity (‘murti’) is placed. In most temples, the
visitors cannot enter the garbhagriha, and only the temple
priests are allowed inside.
The 6 parts of a Hindu Temple:

Worshippers consider that energy flows out in all directions
from the garbhagriha, and this is reflected in the
architecture of the surrounding parts of the temple. For
example, on three sides temples have blind doors which
symbolically allow the deity’s energy to leave the
inner garbhagriha. (ghana dvara) .
The Temple Hall: Most large temples have a hall
meant for the audience to sit. This is also called the ‘nata-
mandira’ (hall for temple-dancing) where, in days of yore,
women dancers or ‘devadasis’ used to perform dance
rituals.

Devotees use the hall to sit, meditate, pray, chant or
watch the priests perform the rituals. The hall is
usually decorated with paintings of gods and
goddesses.
The Front Porch: This area of the temples
usually has a big metallic bell that hangs from the
ceiling. Devotees entering and leaving the porch ring
this bell to declare their arrival and departure.

The Reservoir: If the temple is not in the vicinity of
a natural water body, a reservoir of fresh water is built
on the temple premises. The water is used for rituals as
well as to keep the temple floor clean or even for a ritual
bath before entering the holy abode.
The Walkway: Most temples have a walkway
around the walls of the inner chamber for circum-
ambulation by devotees around the deity as a mark of
respect to the temples god or goddess.

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, 11th Century CE Rajarani Temple, 11th Century CE

Gopura & Nataraja
Temple, Chidambaram,
12th Century CE

Architecture evolved slightly differently in
different regions, such as the distinct features of
Orissa, Kashmir and Bengal temples, but two general
types are identified as the Nagara (North) and
Dravida (South) styles.
NAGARA & DRAVIDA TEMPLES

• sikhara tower in Nagara temples have a sloping
curve as they rise
• have decorative arches known as gavakshas and
are topped by an amalaka – a large fluted stone
disk – and also a small pot and finial
• walls of Nagara temples present a complex
exterior of projections (ratha), with seven on each
side which create many recesses.
NAGARA:

• towers (known separately as vimana) are more dome-like
with cornices, and they are topped by another smaller
dome.
• exterior walls have regular entablatures which often
contain sculpture.
• temples can also have:
 ritual bathing tank or pool (nandi mandapa)
 barrel-vaulted (shala) roof
 enclosed within a walled courtyard with a gate (gopura)
DRAVIDA:

Brihadishvara Temple, Tanjavur Annamalaiyar Temple

 developed in the Indian Subcontinent in the 3rd century
BCE.
 has it roots deeply implanted in the Indian Soil-the
birthplace of Buddha’s teachings.
 Began with the development of various symbols
representing Buddha’s life.
 Indian emperor Ashoka opted for the architectural
monuments to spread Buddhism in different places.
BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE

STUPAS
a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing
relics typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns),
and used as a place of meditation. Also known in
Thailand as a chedi.
The initial function of a stupa was the veneration
and safe-guarding of the relics of the Buddha. The
earliest surviving example of a stupa is
in Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh).
MAJOR FEATURES OF THIS STYLE
INCLUDES:

Types of Stupas:
Built for a variety of reasons, Buddhist stupas are classified
based on form and function into five types:
 Relic stupa, in which the relics or remains of the Buddha, his
disciples and lay saints are interred.
 Object stupa, in which the items interred are objects
belonged to the Buddha or his disciples such as a begging
bowl or robe, or important Buddhist scriptures.
 Commemorative stupa, built to commemorate events in the
lives of Buddha or his disciples.

 Symbolic stupa, to symbolise aspects of Buddhist
theology, for example, Borobuddur is considered to
be the symbol of "the Three Worlds (dhatu) and the
spiritual stages (bhumi) in a
Mahayana bodhisattva'scharacter."[11]
 Votive stupa, constructed to commemorate visits or
to gain spiritual benefits, usually at the site of
prominent stupas which are regularly visited.

Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa
symbolism, the stupa may represent the five purified elements:
 The square base represents earth
 The hemispherical dome/vase represents water
 The conical spire represents fire
 The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represents
air
 The sun and the dissolving point represents the element of
space
Five purified elements:

There are mainly 3 main stupas on the top of the
Sanchi Hill which rise about 100 m above the plain

THE GREAT STUPA SANCHI
 located at Sanchi Town in Raisen District of
thestate of Madhya Pradesh, India, it is 46 km north-east
of Bhopal.
the oldest stone structure in India[1] and was originally
commissioned by the emperor Ashoka the Great in the 3rd
century BCE.
 Its nucleus was a simple hemispherical brick structure built
over the relics of the Buddha. It was crowned by
the chatra, a parasol-like structure symbolising high rank,
which was intended to honour and shelter the relics.

Amravati Stupa
The Amravati stupa, which is also known as
Mahachaitya Stupa, has the privilege of being the largest
stupa(95 feet high) in India - the birthplace of Buddhism.
Built during the 2nd century BCE, the stupa was discovered
by a British archaeologist, Colonel Colin Mackenzie in 1797.
The stupa was earlier a simple structure with limestone
crossbars and simple carvings, but when renovated by the
Satavahana rulers, became a highly marked architectural
monument.

VIHARAS
is the Sanskrit and Pali term for a Buddhist monastery. It
originally meant "a secluded place in which to walk", and
referred to "dwellings" or "refuges" used by
wandering monks during the rainy season.
initially were only temporary shelters used by wandering
monks during the rainy season, but later were developed to
accommodate the growing and increasingly formalised
Buddhist monasticism. An existing example is
at Nalanda (Bihar).

Nalanda
was an acclaimed Mahavihara, a
large Buddhistmonastery in the ancient kingdom
of Magadha (modern-day Bihar) in India. The site is
located about 95 kilometres southeast of Patna near
the town of Bihar Sharif, and was a centre of learning
from the fifth century CE to c. 1200 CE.

CHAITYAS
is a Buddhist shrine or prayer hall with a stupa at one
end. In modern texts on Indian architecture, the
term chaitya-griha is often used to denote an assembly or
prayer hall that houses a stupa.
constructed to hold large numbers of devotees and to
provide shelter for them.
show similarities to ancient Roman architectural concepts
of column and arch.

Worship hall (chaitya) in India

Stupa in chaitya at
Bhaja Caves.

 was established in India when Babur Shah defeated Ibrahim,
Sultan of Delhi
 1526: the golden age of Muslim architecture began
 Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though
few have survived
 style: amalgam of Islamic, Persian, Turkic, and Indian
architecture
 Mughal buildings pattern of structure:
 large bulbous domes
 slender minarets at the corners
 massive halls
 large vaulted gateways
 delicate ornamentation
ISLAMIC (MUGHAL) ARCHITECTURE

Variety of buildings
The Mughal rulers built magnificent gates, forts,
mausoleums, mosques, palaces, public buildings and tombs
etc.
Synthesis of Persian and Indian style
The specimens of architecture created under the
Mughals have become the common heritage of both the
Hindus and the Muslims. It is a happy blend of Hindu and
Muslim architecture.
MAIN FEATURES OF MUGHAL
ARCHITECTURE:

Specific characteristic
A common characteristic of the Mughal buildings
is “the pronounced domes, the slender turrets at the
corners, the palace halls supported on pillars and the
broad/gateways.”
Costly decorations:
The Mughal emperors in general but Shah Jahan in
particular decorated his buildings with costly articles.

One of the important distinguishing features of the
Mughal buildings is their ornamentation as compared
with the simple buildings of the previous Muslim rulers
of India.
Building material
During the Mughal period, buildings were
constructed mostly of red sandstone and white marble.

BABUR (1526-1530)
Babur was not impressed by Indian architecture.
He was unhappy to find no gardens in India like the ones
he had known in Kabul. As soon as Babur arrived in Agra,
he selected a site across the river, had a well dug and
constructed a bath-house. This was followed by a tank
and a pavilion. And soon a Persian garden was laid out
that reminded Babur of his northern home.
ARCHITECTS

Nevertheless he sent for the pupils of Sinan the
noted Albanian architect to work with Indian craftsmen
whose skills he had appreciated. As Babur recorded in
his ‘Memories’, he employed 680 workmen and 1491
stone cutters daily on his various buildings in India. He
constructed several buildings but only two mosques—
one at Panipat and the other at Sambhal have survived.

Gardens of Babur
The Gardens of Babur is a historic park
in Kabul, Afghanistan, and also the last resting-place
of the first Mughal emperor Babur. The gardens are
thought to have been developed around 1528 AD
when Babur gave orders for the construction of an
‘avenue garden’ in Kabul, described in some detail in
his memoirs, the Baburnama.

It was the tradition of Moghul princes to develop
sites for recreation and pleasure during their lifetime,
and choose one of these as a last resting-place. The site
continued to be of significance to Babur’s successors,
and Jehangir made a pilgrimage to the site in 1607 AD
when he ordered that all gardens in Kabul be
surrounded by walls, that a prayer platform be laid in
front of Babur’s grave, and an inscribed headstone
placed at its head.

AKBAR (1556-1605)
The history of Mughal architecture really starts with
Akbar, Babur’s grandson. Just as Akbar built up an extensive
empire on the goodwill of the Hindus, in the same way he
utilised local talent and took inspiration from Indian
architecture. One of the earliest buildings built is the Tomb
of Humayun, in Delhi. It was built after Humayun’s death.
This splendid tomb is a fine example of the synthesis of
Indian-Persian traditions. Other structures created during
Akbar’s reign were Fatehpuri Sikri and the Panch Mahal.

Tomb of Humayun
Humayun's tomb is the tomb of the Mughal
Emperor Humayun in Delhi, India. The tomb was
commissioned by Humayun's son Akbar in 1569-70, and
designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas, a Persian architect. It
was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent,
and is located in Nizamuddin East, Delhi, India, close to
the Dina-panah citadel also known as Purana Qila (Old
Fort) that Humayun founded in 1533.

The tomb is a massive structure, built out of red
sandstone and detailed with white marble. Also known as
the Taj Mahal’s predecessor, it too has a dome, which rises
from a drum between four octagonal towers, which stand
on a red, arcaded podium. Inside, the structure is quite
empty, the cavernous spaces magnifying the power of the
architecture. Besides the main tomb enclosure of Humayun,
several smaller monuments dot the pathway leading up to
it, from the main entrance in the West.

It represented a leap in Mughal architecture, and
together with its accomplished Charbagh garden, typical
of Persian gardens, but never seen before in India, it set a
precedent for subsequent Mughal architecture. It is seen as
a clear departure from the fairly modest mausoleum of his
father, the first Mughal Emperor, Babur, called Bagh-e
Babur (Gardens of Babur) in Kabul (Afghanistan).

Fatehpur Sikri
Fatehpur Sikri is located in Agra District in the State of
Uttar Pradesh in the North East of India. It was constructed
at south-east of an artificial lake, on the slopping levels of
the outcrops of the Vindhyan hill ranges. Known as the “city
of victory”, it was made capital by the Mughal emperor
Akbar (1556-1605 AD) and constructed between 1571 and
1573 AD. Fatehpur Sikri was the first planned city of the
Mughals marked by magnificent administrative, residential
and religious buildings comprised of palaces, public

Upon moving the capital to Lahore in 1585 AD, Fatehpur Sikri
remained as an area for temporary visits by the Mughal
emperors.
The inscribed property covers 60.735 ha, with a buffer
zone of 475.542 ha. It is bounded on three sides by a wall of
6 km, fortified by towers and pierced by 9 gates, in which a
number of impressive edifices of secular and religious
nature, which exhibit a fusion of prolific and versatile Indo-
Islamic styles, exist. The city was originally rectangular in
plan, with a grid pattern of roads and by-lanes which cut at
right angles.

The well defined administrative block, royal
palaces and Jami Mosque are located in the centre
of the city. There was an efficient drainage and
water management system existing in the city. The
buildings are constructed in red sandstone with
little use of marble.

 Diwan-i-Am (the hall of public audience)
 Diwan-i-Khas (hall of private audience) also known as
‘Jewel house’
 Panch Mahal- an extraordinary entirely columnar five
storied structure disposed asymmetrically on the pattern
of Persian badgir or wind-catcher
 Palace of Jodha Bai- the largest building of the residential
complex, the interior has richly carved pillars, balconies,
perforated stone windows and azure-blue ribbed roof on
the north and south sides
 Buland Darwaza- the greatest monumental structure of
the Akbar’s entire reign and also one of the most perfect
architectural achievements in India
Other famed structures:

SHAH JAHAN (1628-1658)
Shah Jahan’s period is usually called the ‘Golden
Age of Mughal Architecture’ and he is given the titles of
‘Prince among the Builders’ and ‘Engineer King’. His
most important and impressive buildings are the Taj
Mahal, Red Fort and Jama Masjid. These buildings are
extremely beautiful and soft.
Shah Jahan mostly made use of marble in place of
red stone. With a view to enhance the beauty and effect
of the ceilings, he made full use of gold, silver, precious
and coloured stones. At several places, the pictures of
trees, animal scenes and other flora and fauna have
been depicted.

The Red Fort
The planning and design of the Red Fort represents a
culmination of architectural development initiated in 1526 AD
by the first Mughal Emperor and brought to a splendid
refinement by Shah Jahan with a fusion of traditions: Islamic,
Persian, Timurid and Hindu. The innovative planning
arrangements and architectural style of building
components as well as garden design developed in the Red
Fort strongly influenced later buildings and gardens in
Rajasthan, Delhi, Agra and further afield.

The fort is surrounded by high, red walls interspersed
with tapering towers. Upon entrance, visitors are led to a
glorious bazaar then to the palace gardens and pavilions. The
buildings are a meeting of enclosed, semi-enclosed, and
open spaces set between arcades and colonnades under
deep eaves that act like eyelids. These are ideal for Delhi’s
climate which is hot in the summer months. All buildings
feature sculptures through which water flows, while the
gardens are lined with canals and adorned with fountains.

Artist’s depiction of The Red Fort

The Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal is located on the right bank of the
Yamuna River in a vast Mughal garden that encompasses
nearly 17 hectares, in the Agra District in Uttar Pradesh. It
was built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his
wife Mumtaz Mahal with construction starting in 1632 AD
and completed in 1648 AD, with the mosque, the guest
house and the main gateway on the south. The outer
courtyard and its cloisters were added subsequently and
completed in 1653 AD. Ustad-Ahmad Lahori was the main
architect of the Taj Mahal.

The uniqueness of Taj Mahal lies in some truly
remarkable innovations carried out by the horticulture
planners and architects of Shah Jahan. One such genius
planning is the placing of tomb at one end of the
quadripartite garden rather than in the exact centre,
which added rich depth and perspective to the distant
view of the monument. It is also, one of the best
examples of raised tomb variety.

The tomb rests on a plinth surrounded by four
minarets, scaled down to emphasize the dome. The
towers are closely coupled to the core of the building,
increasing the sense of unity and oneness that Shah
Jahan felt for his wife. The top of the platform is
reached through a lateral flight of steps provided in the
centre of the southern side. The ground plan of the Taj
Mahal is in perfect balance of composition, the
octagonal tomb chamber in the centre, encompassed by
the portal halls and the four corner rooms.

The plan is repeated on the upper floor. The exterior of
the tomb is square in plan, with chamfered corners.
The building material used is brick-in-lime mortar
veneered with red sandstone and marble and inlay work
of precious/semi precious stones. The mosque and the
guest house in the Taj Mahal complex are built of red
sandstone in contrast to the marble tomb in the centre.

a world-renowned style of architecture that is characterized
with values of progressiveness, exquisite intricacy, austere
beauty and logical flowing lines.
was initially developed within Sikhism but its style is used in
many non-religious building due its beauty.
distinguished for its many curves and straight lines
are known the world over for their characteristic vigor, valor,
versatility, above all their distinct physical, moral and spiritual
identity, their architecture should have remained so abjectly
unidentified.
SIKH ARCHITECTURE

Style and design of building conspicuously popular
among the Sikhs, is owed primarily to their religious
monuments. Their secular edifices such as fortresses,
palaces, samadhs (mausoleums built over places of
cremation), havelis (fortified houses), bungas (residential
cum educational houses ), educational institutions, etc, are
no different from the contemporary style which is generally
a mixture of Mughal and Rajput architecture, or as Percy
Browne, an art historian, has described, a late form of the
Mughal style of architecture.

Gurdwara Keshgarh Sahib
located in the center of the city of Anandpur
Sahib,Punjab, India. It is also known as "Takht Shri Keshgarh
Sahib" and is one of five highest Sikh institutions in India; it
is the city's main Sikh shrine. The city began as Chakk
Nanaki, which was founded by Guru Tegh Bahadur in 1665.
His sonGuru Gobind Singh ji, who spent 25 years of his life in
the city, added greatly to the city's size, giving it the new
name of the City of Bliss (Anandpur).

 more spacious
 haveentrance from all four sides
 not oriented to any set direction as the Muslim mosques
are.
 Guru ka Langar (common kitchen and dining hall
 most gurdwaras have sarovars (bathing tanks) in close
proximity
 recognizable from afar by the nishan sahib, the Sikh
penant in yellow or blue flying atop a high flagpost
TEMPLE FEATURES:

 devoid of any sculptured images in or around them
 do not have to conform to any set architectural design
 only established requirement is the installation of the Guru
Granth Sahib, the Holy Sikh Scripture, in a building under a
canopy or in a canopied seat, usually on a platform higher
than the floor on which the devotees sit
 some imitate the pattern of the Harimandar, the most
sacred shrine of the Sikhs located in the walled city of
Amritsar.

Religious buildings of the Sikhs, the gurdwaras,
also display the essentially eclectic nature of their
architectural design, but they at the same time
possess some special features, and present an
identifiable picture of a style which can doubtlessly be
called Sikh Architecture.

 square
 rectangular
 octagonal
 cruciform (rarely used) the one notable example is
Gurdwara NanakJhira at Bidar in Karnataka. Among the
octagonal, the best known is Gurdwara Baba Atal in
Amritsar. Many a gurdwara has octagonal sanctum
sanctorum within its square or rectangular hall. A covered
circumambulate passage usually runs around the sanctum.
FOUR BASIC PLAN FORMS:

The Samadhi of Ranjit Singh is a building housing the
funerary urns of the Sikh ruler Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

Khalsa College is an historic educational institution in the
northern Indian city of Amritsar in the state of Punjab, India.

Once the Indo-Aryans had settled in India, and
produced the corpus of works collectively known as
the Vedas and Puranas, we witness a slow stratification
of religion in the Indian subcontinent. It was to
challenge this stratification that two of the world’s
major religions, Buddhism and Jainism, took root in
north India in the 5th century BC.
JAIN ARCHITECTURE

While Buddhism went on to become a major
religion across much of Asia, Jainism stayed close to its
roots and flowered in the fertile soil of the Indian
subcontinent’s intellectual and cultural ferment of the
time. Indeed, one of Jainism’s central tenets, the
principle of ‘Anantekavada’ or ‘many truths’, meshed
well with Hinduism’s ‘polymorphous’ character and thus
the two religions never came into open conflict but co-
existed well with each other.

The architecture of Jainism, however, is less
easy to define. While its temples are based
originally on the Hindu temple plan, the difference
lies in the deities placed inside, Jainism preferring
to situate images of the tirthankaras within the
precincts of the temple.

Jain architecture is an offshoot of Hindu and Buddhist styles.
Initially these temples were mainly carved out of
rock faces and the use of bricks was almost negligible.
 Pillars
Jain temples have numerous pillars having a well
designed structure, forming squares. From these pillars,
there are richly carved brackets that emerge at about two
thirds of their height.
FEATURES OF JAIN TEMPLES :

The squares thus formed create chambers, used as small
chapels and contains the image of a deity. Jain temples have
numerous pillars having a well designed structure, forming
squares.

 Roofs
The roofs have pointy domes and wherever there is a
dome, the pillars are omitted to create an octagonal space
within.

 Chamuhk Design
The only variation in architecture specific to Jain temples is
the frequently seen four-faced or chaumukh design. In these four
faced temples, the image of a Tirthankar faces back to back to
face four cardinal directions. Entry into these temples is also from
four doors that face the cardinal directions.

An important aspect to be noted is that Hindus
and Buddhists built temples, Jains built temple- cities on
hills. In later years when Jains discovered the concept of
mountains of immortality, they proceeded to deviate
from Hindu and Buddhist sites and build on their own. To
put it in their own words, they "ornamented these holy
hills with a crown of eternal Arhat chaityas (tabernacles
of saints) shining with the splendor of jewels”.

Compared to the number of Hindu temples in India,
Jain temples are few and spaced out. The latter used to tear
down their older, decaying temples and build new ones at
the same site. On the other hand Jain temples had a certain
militant aura around them, probably because of plunderers
who may have carried away riches. Surrounded by embattled
walls, the Jain temples are divided into wards in a manner
similar to fortified cities. The reason being that Jain temples
are the richest temples in the world, surpassing even Mughal
buildings in terms of grandeur and material wealth.

The temple-cities were not built on a specific plan;
instead they were the results of sporadic construction.
Natural levels of the hill on which the `city’ was being built
accommodated various levels so that as one goes higher so
does the architecture and grandeur increases. Each temple,
though, followed a set pattern, styles, designed on principles
of architecture in use during the period. The only variation
was in the form of frequent Chamukhs or four-faced
temples.
TEMPLE LAYOUT:

In these the image of a Tirthankar (fordmaker) would
face four sides, or four Tirthankars would be placed back to
back to face four cardinal points. Entry into this temple
would be from four doors.
The leading idea of the plan of the Jain temple is that
of a number of columns arranged in squares. Wherever it
was intended to have a dome, pillars were omitted, so as to
leave spaces in the form of octagons. By corbelling over the
pendentives in level courses, the dome was gradually
formed.

Usually the exits lead into a series of columned
chambers into the central halls of the temple. These
columns, standing around for no apparent purpose, might
make the place seem like a mindless labyrinth, but on closer
scrutiny it becomes evident that there is a style and method
in it.
Simply put, these are temples within a temple, divided
into sanctums and surrounded by a range of chapels and
shrines, and the maze of columns act as a defense against
plunderers.
INTERIOR LAYOUT:

Adinath Temple, Ranakpur
Local legend has it that Dharma Shah, a local Jain
businessperson, started construction of the temple in the
15th century following a divine vision. The temple honors
Adinath, the first Tirthankar and founder of the Jain religion.
The town of Ranakpur and the temple are named after the
provincial ruler monarch, Rana Kumbha who supported the
construction of the temple.

Light colored marble has been used for the
construction of this grand temple which occupies an
area of approximately 60 x 62 meters. The temple, with
its distinctive domes, shikhara, turrets and cupolas rises
majestically from the slope of a hill. Over 1444 marble
pillars, carved in exquisite detail, support the temple.
The pillars are all differently carved and no two pillars
are the same. It is also said that it is impossible to count
the pillars. Also all the statues face one or the other
statue.

There is one beautiful carving made out of a single
marble rock where there 108 heads of snakes and numerous
tails. One cannot find the end of the tails. The image faces all
four cardinal directions. In the axis of the main entrance, on
the western side, is the largest image.
The temple is designed as chaumukha—with four
faces. The construction of the temple and quadrupled image
symbolize the Tirthankara's conquest of the four cardinal
directions and hence the cosmos.

Lal Mandir
Shri Digambar Jain Lal Mandir is the oldest and best-
known Jain temple in Delhi, India. It is known for an
avian veterinary hospital in a second building behind the
main temple. It is known as the Jain Birds Hospital.
Located just opposite the massive Red Fort at the
intersection of Netaji Subhas Marg and Chandni Chowk,
Digambar Jain Temple is the oldest Jain temple in the capital,
originally built in 1656.
The main devotional area of the temple is on the first
floor.

It is reached by ascending to the terrace after crossing
the small courtyard of the temple, surrounded by a
colonnade. There are a number of shrines in this area but the
main shrine is of Lord Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara.
The statue of Rishabhanatha, the first Tirthankara is also
present here, along with the shrine of Lord Parshvanath, the
immediate predecessor of Lord Mahavira. The temple is
popular among the Jains. The place is very peaceful and the
ambience is really soothing especially due to the shining of
the gilded paintwork of the shrine area under the lights of

Palitana Temples
The Palitana temples are considered to be the most
sacred tirtha (pilgrimage place) by the Jain community.
There are hundreds of temples, with estimates ranging
between 863 and 1,008. They are arranged in systematic
groupings with variation in height and space. The buildings
are carved in marble and are considered to be prayers in
stone. They are grouped in nine separate wings ortuks, each
wing having a separate central shrine or temple with minor
shrines surrounding it.

They have the unique features of the Chaumukh
temple which is stated to be their creative preoccupation for
large halls for holding discourses. This was prompted by their
first tirthanakara’s discourse. It is an ensemble involving four
sided buildings with doors so that images would be visible
from all four sides or directions. The four sides are called
the caturbimba (four sided views), which is considered
auspicious from all directions. Their religious texts also are
oriented towards building "cities of temples" like Palitana
and Ranakpur, a particular feature in Jainism.

The larger temples have considerable marble halls
with columns and towers, and plenty of openings, unlike
Hindu temples. They are situated in separate enclosures,
surrounded by high fortified walls. Many of the temples are
very small buildings only about 3 square feet (0.28 m2), with
Jain emblems, and sacred to Mahavira. The marble floors
have tesselated patterns. The interiors are intricately
carved, with carved ceilings with geometrical lace designs,
clustered together to form a canopy.

successfully incorporates spiritual, artistic, and cultural
influences within its eight Houses of Worship around the
world.
the edifices attempt to create an atmosphere where people
of all beliefs, cultures, and traditions can come to pray,
meditate, or simply enjoy the tranquility and artistry.
is very different from the sacred architecture of any other
era, because its goals are to unify the people of many
different races, backgrounds, and religions into one central
area where peaceful and harmonious thoughts prevail.
BAHAI ARCHITECTURE

The Houses of Worship were erected in
Turkestan, India, Uganda, Panama, Samoa, Australia,
Germany, and North America. In each location, the
surrounding indigenous culture is restated within the
temple's architectural form and sacred symbolic
decorations.

Other religions have used architectural
designs that reflect cultural influences. However,
the Bahá'í Faith takes a "grass roots" approach to
constructing a House of Worship. Consultation
with the native people is an integral part of the
decision process when designs are selected.

The Bahá'í House of Worship is an architectural
and spiritual attempt to balance modern and
traditional designs in an aesthetically pleasing
environment. The designs include the symbolism of
the divine circle, the reflection of heaven on earth,
and the spirituality of sacred borders.

The Bahá'í House of Worship in
Wilmette, Illinois,
The Lotus Temple, located in New
Delhi, India, is a Bahá'í House of
Worship

Baha'i House of Worship, Kampala, Uganda

Bahá'í House of Worship,
Langenhain, Germany
Bahá'í House of Worship, Sydney,
Australia.

The success of Bahá'í architecture in including the
elements of spirituality, artistry, and cultural heritage
within the Houses of Worship can be measured by several
criteria, which include their architectural soundness and
strength; the universal appeal among visitors and experts;
and the approval of the indigenous people. On the basis of
these measures, the Houses are artistic examples of
cultural beauty that represent the world's great religious
traditions.

HISTORY: INDIAN ARCHITECTURE 2.0

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