1. Running head: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN 1
The Relationship Between Parenting Styles and Academic Achievement
in High School Students
Alesha Leonard
McDaniel College
Fall 2016

2. The Relationship Between 2
The Relationship Between Parenting Style and Academic Achievement
in High School Students
Introduction
Many teenagers claim to want to have children in their futures; however, many of these
same teens do not know they will mimic their parent’s parenting styles when they do become
parents. Researchers have identified four different parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian,
permissive-indulgent, and permissive-uninvolved. What distinguishes these styles most are
levels of attention, support, disciplinary actions, and demands for respect. Parents must
understand that their parenting styles have direct influences on the growth and development of
their children. The way parents choose to discipline and raise their children may, ultimately,
affect their children’s self-esteem, health, and their academic achievement.
Since there is a correlation between parenting style and achievement in school, parents
should be aware of the positive and negative outcomes of their parenting styles. Parenting styles
do not only affect the children involved; they affect their teachers, coaches, and mentors as well.
Teachers, coaches, and mentors, alike, assist students not only with making positive life choices,
but also with their academics. Since parenting styles affect children’s attitudes and behaviors,
this may make tasks difficult for individuals working with children whose parents are not as
supportive or demanding of success. Parents and students should share a positive outlook toward
the student's success in, and out of, the classroom. In order for others to be able to assist students
in reaching their maximum potential, students and parents must have a healthy relationship.
Research on parenting styles in regard to academic achievement in high school students
may lead future parents to choose parenting styles that will be most beneficial for their future

3. The Relationship Between 3
children; this may also make some current parents of high school students reevaluate their styles
to ensure progress and success in their children’s academic careers.
Theoretical Framework
Many parents who have friends or family with children around the same age tend to
spend time together through play dates or even date-nights with their significant others. During
these times parents often speak about their children's growth and behavior, and they discuss how
they react to and handle these situations. Some parents may be more strict than others, some may
be more emotionally supportive than others, and some may coddle more than others. The
Baumrind theory of parenting suggests there are four styles of parenting: authoritative,
authoritarian, permissive-indulgent, and permissive-uninvolved. Parents who practice the
authoritative parenting style have a high demand for success in their children; however, these
parents are also nurturing, they use reasoning, and they use appropriate discipline while still
allowing their children to learn from some of their own mistakes. Authoritarian parents have a
high demand for respect, they set extremely high standards, and their disciplining skills may
involve physical or verbal punishment. Permissive-indulgent parents, typically, play the role of
friends to their children; they do not set high standards for their children, they present an excess
of warmth, and they do not set limits for their children no matter what situation it may be. The
permissive-uninvolved style is the most negligent. These parents show small amounts of warmth
and care toward their children, and they may consistently reject their children.
Parenting styles may affect academic achievement in high school students. For the
purpose of this study the term "academic achievement" refers to the combination of a student's
strength in grade point average (GPA), school attendance, scores on state-administered exams,
reading intelligence, mathematical intelligence, and standardized test scores. Academic

4. The Relationship Between 4
achievement influences where, and if, a student is accepted into a higher-learning institution. It
also influences student's personal attributes including self-esteem, emotional well-being, and
reasoning skills. Academic achievement is not based only on how well a student can complete
tasks with accuracy; students must also have good time management skills, dedication, ability for
resilience, and communication skills. These skills are learned through example, and, most of the
time, parents exhibit these examples. Depending on parenting style, children may not be exposed
to the traits they must possess to achieve high-standing academic achievement. Lack of example
throughout adolescence will begin to show negative outcomes during the high school years, thus
impacting a high school student's success in the classroom.
Depending on personality traits, it may be difficult for some parents to choose a parenting
style and properly execute it. Since there is mainly anecdotal evidence to act as a guide for
parenting, parents must understand themselves and how well they think they will be able to
handle their children struggling in school, struggling with body image issues, or having difficulty
with socialization, for example. Even with assistance from friends and family, parents must learn
how to regulate their thoughts and feelings in certain situations involving their children. Parents
who have attachment issues may have difficulty with attempting to practice the authoritative
parenting style since it involves a strong want for their children's emotional well-being. Parents
who have high career status may have issues with control, thus forbidding them to give their
children as much freedom as permissive-indulgent parents. Choosing a parenting style may be
difficult considering the parent's values, experiences, ability to execute disciplinary actions,
maturity, and socioeconomic status.

5. The Relationship Between 5
Plan for Investigation
Researchers will use a non-experimental design for this study. This study will use a
qualitative approach basing information gathering upon observation, school-released academic
documents, and surveys. 40 high school students will be randomly selected across two different
high schools within the same school district. Researchers will send electronic surveys to the
students' parents to complete. This survey will identify the parents' parenting styles, thus
allowing researchers to categorize the students based on their parents' parenting style:
authoritative, authoritarian, permissive-indulgent, and permissive-uninvolved. Once the
researchers have determined how to place the students, they will begin to view their student
records. Careful review of these records will help confirm a parenting style that is most
positively correlated with high levels of academic achievement.
Tentative Hypothesis
Knowing the positive and negative outcomes of parenting styles may influence how
parents choose to raise their children. This decision may influence how their children succeed in
academics. The relationship between parenting style and academic achievement in high school
students may determine the futures of many children. If parents learn about the outcomes of
parenting style, they may change how involved and supportive they are of their children’s
success, which may influence students' academic achievement and their options for the future.

6. The Relationship Between 6
Review of Literature
Introduction
Parenting styles are important, especially during childhood, because they contribute to
children's self-esteem, habits, and academic achievement through adolescence. The Baumrind
theory of parenting recognizes four parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive-
indulgent, and permissive-uninvolved. These parenting styles are differentiated by level of
warmth and attention, demand for success, disciplinary actions, and demand for respect. The
type of parenting children experience may impact their thoughts of their futures, seriousness
about academics, and willingness to exert extra effort to ensure success. If more parents are
aware of the cognitive, developmental, and emotional outcomes of parenting styles, there may be
an overall increase in standardized test scores, self-esteem, and maturity of high school students.
For the purpose of this study, the term "academic achievement" refers to a high school
student's grade point average (GPA), school attendance, scores on state-administered exams,
reading intelligence, math intelligence, and standardized test scores. A student's academic
achievement is, largely, dependent upon the parent's levels of involvement and encouragement
and the parent's choice of parenting style. Parenting style demonstrates a parent's view of the
"right" way to raise a child. Although there is no specified way to raise a child, research suggests
that some styles are more, academically, beneficial than others. The purpose of this study is to
gain insight on which parenting style is the most academically beneficial for high school
students.
Articles will be theoretically arranged based upon parenting style, parent involvement,
socioeconomic status, and ethnicity in relation to academic success of high school students.

7. The Relationship Between 7
Justification
A computer-based search of McDaniel College Databases was performed using the initial
search terms "parenting styles" and "academic achievement;" approximately 1,385 sources were
found. Other search terms used were "parental involvement," "high school students," "academic
success," and "academic performance." The search was limited to academic journals, scholarly,
peer-reviewed articles, and articles published only in English. The decision to limit the search
allowed for appropriate and useful journal articles to be easily found. Ten sources were collected
for this study.
Review of Individual Studies
Parenting Styles. Parenting styles are known to have a strong correlation with academic
achievement. The way parents choose to raise their children has a significant impact on the
children's development and cognitive aptitude; however, declines in cognitive ability become
more noticeable and pertinent during the high school years. The Baumrind theory of parenting
recognizes four parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive-indulgent, and
permissive-uninvolved. Research supports the authoritative parenting style as being most
positively correlated with academic achievement for high school students.
Tang and Davis-Kean suggest there are three elements of a healthy home environment
that will promote academic success: parent engagement, a warm and emotional climate, and a
cognitively stimulating environment (2015). They explain that harsh parenting practices during
early childhood may lead to changes in brain development and reduced cognitive and social
abilities; because of this, children's academic achievement is often faltered (Tang & Davis-Kean,
2015). These researchers measured reading and math achievement, home environment, warmth,

8. The Relationship Between 8
and parenting responses of 483 children over the age of ten in order to determine achievement
outcomes of children during late adolescence. After an analysis of the Panel Study of Income
Dynamics (PSID) and the Child Development Supplement (CDS) researchers were able to
conclude that punitive parenting styles are negatively associated with academic achievement,
whereas parents who use more positive parenting practices have children who succeed more
during high school (Tang & Davis-Kean, 2015). Tang and Davis-Kean conclude that after
middle school, students who experienced high levels of punitive parenting practices, generally,
have lower standardized test scores (2015). A healthy home environment with members showing
support and engaging in cognitively-stimulating activities with children will provide a more
positive learning experience. Results from this study show that cognitive stimulation is most
strongly associated with academic achievement in reading and math during high school (Tang &
Davis-Kean, 2015). This study provides a generalization for which parenting style may be best
associated with academic achievement. Harsh parenting styles are most associated with
authoritarian parenting practices and permissive-uninvolved parenting practices such as physical
discipline and lack of emotional engagement; however, the authoritative and permissive-
indulgent parenting styles, typically, include warmth, support, engagement, and cognitive
stimulation. The results of this study support authoritative parenting practices as associated with
academic achievement in high school students.
Rivers, Mullis, Fortner, and Mullis (2012) conducted a study to verify that type of
parenting style has an impact on academic achievement. Researchers used a nonrandomized
cluster sample of 148 high school students between the ages of 14 and 18 from 18 counties in a
southern, rural state. Rivers et al. administered the Parenting Style and Parental Involvement
Questionnaire (PSPI), Harter's Intrinsic-Extrinsic Orientation Scale, Patterns of Adapted

9. The Relationship Between 9
Learning Survey (PALS), and the Academic Self-Efficacy Scale to measure parenting style,
motivation, goal-orientation, and self-efficacy; academic performance was measured through
self-reported GPA across math, science, English, and social studies (2012). Results indicate that
parents who show a high level of demand and a high level of response tend to have students who
have high levels of academic achievement; parents who show high levels of demand and low
levels of response tend to have adolescents who have low levels of academic success (Rivers et
al., 2012). High levels of demandingness and responsiveness are associated with the authoritative
parenting style, and this study supports that authoritative practices are correlated with higher
levels of student motivation; however, there was no significantly significant results indicating
that parenting style has an influence on goal-orientation (Rivers et al., 2012). Rivers et al. (2012)
concluded that high demand and high response, indicating the authoritative parenting style, do
not have any association with student self-efficacy, although high levels of demand and low
levels of response, indicating authoritarian practices, are negatively associated with low levels of
student self-efficacy. This study designates authoritative parenting practices as most positively
correlated with academic achievement for high school students.
Tang, Davis-Kean, and Rivers et al. explain that parenting style has a significant impact
on academic achievement in high school students. Through a healthy home environment,
warmth, cognitive stimulation, high demand, and high response rates, parents provide a strong,
authoritative foundation for their children. Adolescents who have parents that are actively
engaged and show a genuine interest in success tend to have higher levels of academic
achievement; these students are more motivated and have a healthy support system. Parents who
use authoritarian or permissive-uninvolved practices tend to leave adolescents unenthused and
unprepared to future success.

10. The Relationship Between 10
Parent Involvement. While parenting styles show a positive correlation with academic
success in high school students, literature shows parental involvement as being just as, if not
more, effective in school achievement during adolescence.
Paulson's research proposes that the authoritative parenting style shows variables of
parental involvement that are essential to academic achievement: verbal interaction, high
expectations of children's academic achievement, positive beliefs and statements about children's
abilities, warmth, control, and democracy (Paulson, 1994). 247 ninth-grade students and their
parents were randomly chosen from a population of households containing children who were in
the ninth grade and had two parents residing in the household. Achievement outcomes were
measured through self-reported grades from the previous grading period. Levels of parent
demandingness and responsiveness were measured using two designed 15-item scales and a 22-
item scale for parental involvement. Since this study allowed for the parent perspective to be
represented, the surveys were designed to avoid bias. After close review, Paulson concluded that
parental involvement is more positively associated with academic achievement across gender in
high school students in comparison to parenting style. For both mothers and fathers, students
equally reported their parents' practices as associated with their academic achievement. Only
mothers' reports of parenting were strongly associated with achievement of their daughters;
fathers' reports of their parenting impact on their children's achievement did not show any
significant results (Paulson, 1994). Paulson supports high levels of maternal and paternal
demandingness, responsiveness, and involvement as being significant influences on high school
achievement, with high levels of control being essential for boys and girls, alike (1994). High
school students view parental involvement as cues for commitment to their futures. High school

11. The Relationship Between 11
parents who show high levels of demandingness, responsiveness, and involvement usually
practice the authoritative parenting style.
Al-Alwan agrees that parental involvement has a positive correlation with academic
achievement of high school students. Researchers randomly selected 671 ninth and tenth grade
students across 59 high schools; the mean average of these students was 15.89 years (Al-Alwan,
2014). Participants completed "the assessment of school engagement scale" and the Parental
Involvement in Schooling Scale (PISS) during their class-time hours to measure school
engagement and parental involvement (Al-Alwan, 2014, p.49). Academic achievement was
measured through cumulative grade point average across four subject areas at the end of the
2012/2013 academic year: Arabic Language, English Language, Math, and Science. After review
of literature, Al-Alwan concluded that school engagement directly influences academic
achievement (2014). Results also show that parental involvement directly influences school
engagement; therefore, parental involvement indirectly influences academic performance in high
school students (Al-Alwan, 2014). Parents who show signs of positive parental involvement
typically practice authoritative and permissive-indulgent parenting styles. While authoritarian
parents may show involvement in their children's academics, it usually constitutes negative
criticisms rather than positive reinforcement techniques. This may lead to the assumption that
parents who use an authoritative approach are more likely to have students who are academically
successful through their involvement in school activities.
King and Hill explore parental involvement in relation to academic achievement by
determining which parental figure, mother or father, has a stronger association to children's
success. Researchers conducted a meta-analysis of 52 empirical studies that showed 390
correlations between maternal parental involvement, paternal parental involvement, and

12. The Relationship Between 12
achievement (King & Hill, 2015). The analysis supports that parental involvement, especially
academic socialization, leads to academic achievement thorough the entire academic career.
Results show that the average correlation between mother involvement in education and
achievement is .15, and the average correlation between father involvement in education and
achievement is .14 (King & Hill, 2015). King and Hill stated that although there is an effect size
of .01 between mother and father involvement, there was no statistical significance in the
strength of parental involvement and academic success (2015). Researchers also conducted a
moderator analysis of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies to conclude that longitudinal
studies had a .11 higher correlation, thus indicating that parental involvement has a greater effect
on academic achievement over time (King & Hill, 2015). While it is essential to have both
parents in the household, this study shows that single parents who show parental involvement in
education will have children who are just as successful in the classroom as students who live
with their mother and father who are both involved.
Blondal and Adalbjaranardottir (2014) conducted a longitudinal study of 835 adolescents
aged 14-22 to determine if parenting style and engagement are correlated with high school
dropout rates. SES, parenting practices, school disengagement, academic achievement, and
school drop-out rates were measured. Blondal and Adalbjaranardottir conclude that students
from low SES backgrounds tended to have higher dropout rates than students who did not have a
low SES background (2014). Students who reported having parents who used authoritative
practices were more likely to have graduated high school when compared to students who had
authoritarian parents; this shows that parents continue to have an impact on their children's
education throughout adolescence rather than only childhood (Blondal and Adalbjaranardottir,
2014). Blondal and Adalbjaranardottir also found that authoritative household tend to have a

13. The Relationship Between 13
significantly higher level of academic engagement, which may influence lower dropout rates
amongst students between 14-22 with authoritative parents. A healthy, authoritative household
promotes academic excellence of high school students, and it reduces the rate of dropouts.
Paulson, Al-Alwan, King, Hill, Blondal, and Adalbjaranardottir conducted studies that
support parental involvement and engagement as essential factors in academic success of high
school students. Through high levels of demandingness, responsiveness, warmth, engagement,
and socialization, parents who exemplify these characteristics in relation to their children's
academic needs tend to have children who perform successfully in the classroom. Authoritative
parenting practices include the needed levels of parental involvement to ensure student success.
Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity. Socioeconomics and ethnicity impact how parents
choose to raise their children. Parents who have high educational attainment tend to practice
authoritative and authoritarian styles. Parents who have low educational attainment and live in
poor areas tend to be less involved with their children, and they practice permissive parenting.
African American, Hispanic, and Vietnamese parents tend to have a harsh, authoritarian
approach to academics, whereas Caucasian parents tend to practice authoritative parenting. Even
with monetary and ethnic differences, research explains that authoritative parenting is related to
academic achievement in high school students.
Mandara, Varner, Greene, and Richman (2009) studied 2,284 women and their 4,406
children who were at least ten years old during the year 2000. Researchers measured grandparent
socioeconomic status (SES), mother's achievement, immediate family SES, parenting practices,
and adolescent achievement of African American and Caucasian students. Mandara et al.
indicated that European Americans have a ten-point advantage over African Americans in
academics; results of this study explain why (2009). This study shows that European American

14. The Relationship Between 14
grandparents had a higher educational attainment, higher occupational status, and more literacy
resources when compared to African American grandparents, and this leads to differences in
occupational success and educational attainment of mothers of high school-aged children
(Mandara et al., 2009). Mandara et al.(2009) measured decision making, parental monitoring,
house chores, arguments about rules, school orientation, and warmth in relation to parenting
practices of European Americans and African Americans. Results show that Caucasian parents
use higher levels of these parenting practices, which are associated with authoritative style, than
African Americans, leading to the assumption that parenting practices play a role in the
achievement gap; however, results also point out that if Caucasian and African American
grandparents were offered the same monetary, occupational, and education resources, there
would be no statistically significant ethnic difference in academic achievement (Mandara et al.,
2009). The achievement gap continues to decrease through generations because more African
American parents are attaining higher levels of education, more prestigious occupations, and
provide a school-oriented home environment using the authoritative parenting style rather than
authoritarian. Since parents' achievement is pertinent for their children's achievement, parents
must continue to adopt authoritative practices to reduce the associations of low SES on African
American student achievement.
Murry, Berkel, Brody, Miller, and Chen (2009) randomly selected 671 11 year-old
African American adolescents from schools in Georgia to measure how parental and racial
socialization, youth self-pride, youth academic presentation, and adult academic presentation
effect academic achievement. Results show that racial and ethnic socialization through parenting
was positively associated with youth self-pride; youth self-pride and high self-esteem was
positively correlated with strong academic ability (Murry et al., 2009). Murry et al. (2009) were

15. The Relationship Between 15
able to conclude that African American students who showed interest in academics and did not
let oppression interfere with their self-pride provided their teachers with the assumption that they
are academically competent; they also drew the conclusion that students who show high interest
in academic achievement have parents who are equally involved. The type of involvement the
parents in this study used are consistent with the authoritative parenting style.
Dever and Karabenick (2011) randomly selected 3,602 Hispanic, Vietnamese, and
Caucasian students from 198 math classes across four public middle schools and two public high
schools to determine if the authoritative teaching style using academic press and caring for
students is effective. Researchers tested student interest and achievement and whether or not
effects are moderated by ethnicity by administering self-report student surveys, the Patterns of
Adaptive Learning Scale (PALS), a teacher caring scale, and student interest scale (Dever &
Karabenick, 2011). Dever and Karabenick conclude that authoritative teaching is positively
correlated with achievement gaps (2011). They also conclude that authoritative teaching
practices are more positively associated with Hispanic and Caucasian math success; Vietnamese
students show a higher success rate in math with authoritarian practices (Dever & Karabenick,
2011). High levels of academic press were associated with Vietnamese students and students
whose parents have high levels of educational attainment, and Hispanics showed low levels of
school interest and low levels of achievement in mathematics (Dever & Karabenick, 2011). This
study concludes that teachers who show academic interest tend to have students who are more
successful in math, although high levels of caring show no significance for any ethnicity studied.
The interest teachers provide through authoritative practices allows most students to be
mathematically successful.

16. The Relationship Between 16
White, Stepney, Hatchimonji, Mocery, Linski, and Reyes-Portillo (2016) selected
European American, African American, and Hispanic students from 452 schools that showed
proficiency in language and math. White et al. explained that the differences in SES between
races has significant impact on achievement on standardized tests during the latter years of high
school; in fact, race and ethnicity do not show to be influential on academic performance in
language and math until middle school (2009). Results further explains that changes in classroom
size, school size, and teacher availability will not significantly take part in closing the
achievement gap between races (White et al., 2009). African American and Hispanic high school
students may score lower on standardized tests because of the authoritarian practices that are
often used in association to academic success or failure.
Mandara et al., Murry et al., Dever, Karabenick, and White et al., explore the impact of
socioeconomic status and ethnicity in relation to classroom success. While Mandara et al. and
White et al. mention the achievement gap as being associated with authoritarian practices, Murry
et al explains that education of ethnic differences and academic expectation for minorities serve
as building blocks for minorities to have more confidence in the classroom, ultimately leading to
higher success. If more parents across races, no matter what SES may be, adopt authoritative
parenting practices, the achievement gap may drastically decrease within the next generation.
Dever and Karabenick support authoritative practices by concluding that math teachers who use
authoritative support styles tend to have more successful students cross-culturally.
Cross-study Information
Parents must become aware of the effects of parenting style on adolescent academic
achievement. Parenting practices during early childhood impact social, cognitive, and physical
development throughout adolescence. A ground understanding of each parenting style and its

17. The Relationship Between 17
effects may alter some parents' practices in lieu of ensuring maximum potential is reached for
their children. In attempt to determine which parenting style is most positively correlated with
academic achievement, ten articles were reviewed. Research supports that through engagement,
warmth, high demand, high response, attention, and regulated discipline, the authoritative
parenting style is most effective for high school students cross-culturally.
Visual Representation.
Author Parenting
Style
Parental
Involvement
Academic
Performance
Socioeconomic
Status
Ethnicity
Al-Alwan (2014) X X
Blondal &
Adalbjaranrdottir
(2014)
X X X X X
Dever & Karabenick
(2011)
X X X
Kim & Hill (2015) X X
Mandara et al.
(2009)
X X X
Murry & Berkel
(2009)
X X X
Paulson (1994) X X X
Rivers et al. (2012) X X
Tang & Davis-Kean
(2015)
X X X X
White et al. (2016) X X X
Recommendations. Relationships between parenting style and athletic performance may
be conducted as an extension of this research. Parenting style may also be studied for differences
in achievement for introverted and extraverted students. Parenting style and success in arts such
as dance and music may also be further studied.

18. The Relationship Between 18
Methodology
Introduction
Parenting styles provide a foundation of skills that children will carry throughout their
adolescent years. Learned-skills such as time management, effective communication, and
critical thinking may significantly impact a high school student's academic success. Baumrind's
Theory of parenting styles suggests there are four parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative,
permissive-indulgent, and permissive-uninvolved; type of parenting style may impact the success
of high school students.
Participants
Researchers will conduct a random cluster sample of 40 high school students and their
parents. Two high schools with grades 9-12 will be randomly selected from the Calvert County
Public School district in Maryland by a random number generator. 20 students, five from each
grade level, will be randomly chosen from math and English courses at each school. Criterion for
student-selection will be based upon students who live with two parents.
Design
Researchers will conduct a non-experimental study using a qualitative approach. Subjects
and their parents will complete surveys to determine which parenting style is used in each
household. Researchers will gather information by observation, school-released academic
documents, and surveys. Academic achievement will be measured across four parenting styles:
authoritarian, authoritative, permissive-indulgent, and permissive-uninvolved. Through
information gathering and observation, researchers will support or reject their hypotheses of the
authoritative parenting style being most significantly correlated with academic achievement.

19. The Relationship Between 19
Procedures
 Permission will be obtained from the McDaniel College Institutional Review Board to
conduct this study.
 Permission will be obtained from subject's parents, school principals, and the Calvert
County Board of Education.
 Participants and their parents will be informed of the right to withdraw from the study at
any time without penalty.
 Participants will be recruited from two high schools in the Calvert County school district
in Maryland.
 Three Research Assistants will be randomly selected from a group of college-level
volunteers. Research Assistants will be trained to properly read student transcripts,
average administered exams, and review school attendance records; they will also be
trained to properly review results of administered surveys to students and parents.
Researchers will assign a number between 1-4 to four high schools in the Calvert County
Public school district. Two schools will be chosen using a random number generator. Using the
same technique, five students from each grade level will be chosen from grades nine through
twelve from math and English classes. This process will be repeated until the sample contains
only students who reside in a household with two parents; the subject's parents may or may not
be biological. Researchers will send an electronic Parental Authority Questionnaire to each
student to complete. Each parent will receive an electronic Parenting Style Questionnaire to
submit. Researchers will observe each questionnaire and categorize students based on perceived
parenting style.

20. The Relationship Between 20
Once students are categorized, researchers will begin observing student records for each
group: authoritarian, authoritative, permissive-indulgent, and permissive-uninvolved. Student
records will consist of cumulative grade point average in math and English courses, school
attendance, scores on state-administered exams, and standardized test scores. After careful
observation, researchers will determine which parenting style group is most correlated with
academic achievement of high school students.
A variety of descriptive and inferential statistics will be used to interpret the data.
Researchers will be seeking which parenting style group shows the highest reading intelligence,
mathematical intelligence, school attendance, scores on state-administered exams, and
standardized test scores.
This study may have several potential limitations:
 Small sample size (n=40)
 Inaccurate self-report data
 An unrepresentative sample
Students and parents will receive results in the mail indicating which parenting style
group they were most consistent with; they will also receive information about the study's results
on which parenting style was most positively correlated with academic success.

21. The Relationship Between 21
References
Al-Alwan, A.F. (2014). Modeling the relations among parental involvement, school engagement
and academic performance of high school students. International Education Studies, 7(4),
47-56. doi:10.5539/ies.v7n4p47
Blondal, K.S., & Adalbjarnardottir, S. (2014). Parenting in relation to school dropout through
student engagement: A longitudinal study. Journal of Marriage and Family, 76(4),
778-795. doi:10.1111/jomf.12125
Dever, B.V., & Karabenick, S.A. (2011). Is authoritative teaching beneficial for all students? A
multi-level model of the effects of teaching style on interest and achievement. School
Psychology Quarterly, 26(2), 131-144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0022985
Kim, S. W., & Hill, N.E. (2015). Including fathers in the picture: A meta-analysis of parental
involvement and students’ academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology,
107(4), 919-934. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000023
Mandara, J., Varner, F., Greene, N., & Richman, S. (2009). Intergenerational predictors of the
Black-White achievement gap. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(4), 867-878.
doi: 10.1037/a0016644
Murry, V.M., Brody, G.H., Miller, S.J., & Chen, Y. (2009). Linking parental socialization to
interpersonal protective processes, academic self-presentation, and expectations among
rural African American youth. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(1),
doi: 10.1037/a0013180
Paulson, S.E. (1994). Relations of parenting style and parental involvement with ninth-grade
students’ academic achievement. Journal of Early Adolescence, 14(2), 250-267.

22. The Relationship Between 22
Rivers, J., Mullis, A.K., Fortner, L.A., & Ronald, L. (2012). Relationships between parenting
styles and performance of adolescents. Journal of Family Social Work, 15(3), 202-
216. doi: 10.1080/10522158.2012.666644
Tang, S., & Davis-Kean, P.E. (2015). The association of punitive parenting practices and
adolescent achievement. Journal of Family Psychology, 29(6), 873-883.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/fam0000137
White, G.W., Stepney, C.T., Moceri, D.C., Reyes-Portillo, J.A., & Elias, M.J. (2016). The
increasing impact of socioeconomics and race on standardized academic test scores
across elementary, middle, and high school. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 86(1),
10-23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ort0000122