Key Issues of Water Runoff in Somaliland

Professional Papers on Selected Key Issues in Somaliland
July 2015

Disclaimer
The content of this publication does not reflect the official opinion of the SDF
Secretariat or the Government of Somaliland. Responsibility for the information and
views expressed in the different papers lies entirely with the authors.

Preface
The papers in this publication have been written by civil servants of Somaliland, with support of the
Somaliland Development Fund’s (SDF) Capacity Surge Project (CSP).
SDF finances projects aligned to Somaliland’s National Development Plan. These projects are
implemented by Project Management Teams (PMTs), mainly staffed by civil servants of the concerned
Ministry or Agency.
CSP is a dedicated initiative, funded by DFID as additional support under SDF, to improve project
management capacities of civil servants in the SDF partner Ministries and Agencies. The first round of
CSP training, which took place between September 2014 and July 2015, targeted PMT members and
other senior staff of six Ministries and Agencies, taking them through the key aspects of developing
and managing projects. The Government partner of CSP is the Civil Service Institute (CSI).
To those who were interested, CSP offered an additional learning opportunity of another nature:
developing and writing a professional paper. The objective of this exercise was to enhance conceptual
and writing skills, encourage the use of secondary data, and promote structured, professional
analysis. Supported and coached in person and through frequent e-mail contact by senior CSP expert
Martin de Graaf, fifteen people started this process in February 2015, focusing on subjects mostly
related to the sector they work in. Eleven of them brought this to conclusion, resulting in the six papers
in this collection.
It is encouraging to see that the various authors have been able to produce well-structured, properly
documented and highly relevant papers. This confirms, once more, that middle and senior staff in
Ministries and Agencies in Somaliland have an active interest in their work, are capable and motivated
to take an in-depth look at issues in key sectors, and come up with constructive proposals.
It also confirms that this Government staff can investigate and document issues themselves, with only
minimal initial support, rather than relying on external consultants. The leadership in the various
Ministries and Agencies may take note of this and provide more opportunities for staff to investigate
important issues and come up with proposals and recommendations for their sector.
It may not be a coincidence that three papers concern water, one of the scarcest resources of
Somaliland. The authors come up with well-argued recommendations on how to make better use of
water, through reducing and diverting run off water, exploiting seasonal rivers, and improving
management of rural water supply systems.
Another paper considers the fragility of the environment from another angle and comes up with
realistic proposals for reducing the use of charcoal, by facilitating the use of other sources for fuel.
Another paper looks at the agricultural sector and analyses the need for more and better coordinated
research, feeding into extension work with farmers, and being informed by this.
The last paper addresses the larger context of Somaliland and its strained relationship with Somalia.
This is an insightful analysis of the history of the two countries, the differences feeding the conflict and
possible steps to resolve it.
All papers are worth a wider audience, within and beyond the concerned Ministries and Agencies.
They prove that motivated civil servants can investigate, analyse and document important issues and
come up with relevant and realistic proposals.
In the end, the most important resource of Somaliland is its people, within and outside Government
institutions. Their commitment, focus and skills are crucial factors in understanding and tackling the
challenges of the country.
These papers are a small but significant proof of that.
Martin de Graaf, CSP Capacity Development Expert

Contents
Title Page
Negative Impact of Water Runoff and Possible Mitigation Measures 1
Ahmed Hassan Mohamed and Hodan Ahmed Aden
The Environmental Impact of Charcoal Production in Somaliland 15
Ilyas Hassan Osman
Improving the Exploitation of Seasonal Rivers of Somaliland for Agro-pastoral Use 28
Abdirahman Farah Omar, Abdirahman Abdisalam Sh. Ali, Khadar Ali Hassan
How Can Agricultural Research Contribute to Improving Agricultural Production in
Somaliland? 42
Abdirisak Abdilahi Ibrahim
The Deep Rooted Conflict between the Republic of Somaliland and Somalia and
Steps to Settle this 54
Ahmed M. Dalmar
Sustainable Management of Rural Water Supply 66
Eng. Saeed Dualeh Mohamed, Mohamoud Hussein Nuue, Yussuf Hassan Ismail

Negative Impact of Water Runoff and
Possible Mitigation Measures
Ahmed Hassan Mohamed and
Hodan Ahmed Aden
Ministry of Water Resources
June 2015
Authors’ Address: Main road, next to Immigration Department, Ministry
of Water Resources, 00252-63-4401201/00252-63-4450060

SOMALILAND TOPOGRAPHIC MAP (LAND SCAPE AND WATER RUNOFF PATHWAYS)
[Source: Ministry of Water Resources]

Contents
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 3
2 Background................................................................................................................ 3
3 Causes of Surface Water Runoff................................................................................ 4
4 Negative Impacts of Water Runoff in Somaliland ....................................................... 7
5 Possible Mitigation Measures of Surface Water Runoff.............................................. 8
6 Conclusions ..............................................................................................................13
7 Recommendations ....................................................................................................13
Tables
Table 1: Quantity of surface water harvesting infrastructure in Somaliland in 2013.................... 6
Table 2: Estimated costs of forestation and protection of plants................................................. 8
Table 3: Estimated costs for management of chemicals and eradication of existing chemical
wastes ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Table 4: Estimated costs for controlling water runoff on mountain slopes..................................10
Table 5: Estimated costs for increasing surface water harvesting infrastructure........................10
Table 6: Estimated costs for changing nomadic herding behaviour...........................................11
Table 7: Total estimated costs for the proposed mitigation measures .......................................12
Table 8: Timeframe for the proposed mitigation measures........................................................12
Figures
Figure 1: Calculation of rain water in liters.................................................................................. 4
Figure 2: Gully erosion, MoERD................................................................................................. 7
Figure 3: Water table recharging process................................................................................... 8
Figure 4: Surface water runoff in Hargeisa (April, 2015)............................................................13
Disclaimer

Negative Impact of Water Runoff and Possible Mitigation Measures
Ahmed Hassan Mohamed and Hodan Ahmed Aden 3
1 Introduction
Water runoff is the flow of water over the earth’s surface. It occurs in Somaliland mostly in the
rainy season, when you may have seen surface water running over in cities or a heavy flood
crossing the main road that connects Hargeisa and Berbera or Hargeisa and Borama, where
you had to wait for several hours until the flood ended.
It is worth mentioning that this surface water runoff has negative effects beyond flooding. Water
runoff is a major factor that causes loss of quality and fertility of the soil in Somaliland, which is
often termed soil erosion. Four types of soil erosion among the five types that occur in
Somaliland are caused by surface water runoff; these are sheet erosion, rill erosion, gully
erosion and splash erosion.
Water runoff also has social impact, such as loss of lives and damage of property, such as
carrying vehicles moving through river crossings in the main road networks between the regions
of Somaliland, especially in the rainy season.
These negative effects are a major problem to the people, livestock population and agricultural
production in Somaliland.
The contribution of livestock to the national economy is estimated around 60 to 65%. About 60%
of Somaliland’s people rely mostly on the products and by-products of their livestock for daily
sustenance.
Taking into account average annual rainfall and soil fertility and depth, it is estimated that
Somaliland has a total potential agricultural area of about 13,760KM2
. Land under cultivation is
currently estimated at 4,128KM2
. Surface water is the major water supply for most of these
cultivated areas. Most of the farms which are situated along the banks of streams are subject to
floods and in danger of being washed away.
This paper will discuss the negative impact of surface water runoff, which is a pressing problem
in Somaliland and in need of immediate intervention.
2 Background
Somaliland has many mountains, hills and valleys. It has mountain ranges rising up to six and
seven thousand feet in the centre and in the east of the country respectively. Although exact
figures have not been collected yet, the mountainous range known as the Golis range
horizontally cuts through the country, extending from the west near the border with Ethiopia to
the border with Somalia. The Golis range ends at cape “Ras casayr” in the north east of
Somalia.
These mountains and hills cause water to move more rapidly than would be the case on flat
surfaces. In addition, in urban areas most of the paved roads and rooftops do not allow

Figure 1: Calculation of rain water in
liters
infiltration of water into the soil, which greatly increases the amount of precipitation that is
converted into runoff water.
The infiltration of water into the soil has been affected by people, mainly by removing vegetation
for charcoal production, overgrazing and overcultivation.
Somaliland has limited infrastructure for water harvesting, therefore most of the water received
in the two rainy seasons ends in running off, instead of being harvested and benefiting mankind.
This creates a situation where the potential benefits of utilising rain water are lost and where
runoff causes problems in the environment such as soil erosion.
Somaliland consists of three main topographic zones:
 The Coastal Plain (Guban), a zone with high temperatures and low rainfall;
 The Coastal Range (Ogo), a high plateau to the immediate south of Guban. Rainfall is
heavier in Ogo zone than in Guban, although it varies considerably within the zone;
 The Plateau (Hawd) lies to the south of coastal range (Ogo). It is generally more heavily
populated during the rainy season and receives similar rainfall when compared to coastal
range zone. It is also an important area for grazing.
3 Causes of Surface Water Runoff
3.1 Rainfall and Soil Characteristics in Somaliland
3.1.1 Rainfall
Generally Somaliland has a semi-arid climate. Rain is
common in two of the four seasons in the year, in the
spring (Gu’) and the autumn (Deyr). The spring is the
major rainy season and runs from late March to early
June while the autumn runs from September to early
November. The minimum average annual rainfall in the
country as mentioned in Country’s statistics of 2010 is
14.5 inches (368mm), but a significant amount of the
water received as rainfall ends up running off and
infiltration is not at the required rate while limited surface
water harvesting occurs. Infiltration is known as the
process by which the water on the ground surface enters
the soil.
When we assume the infiltration and evaporation rate at
zero, this means that one feet square of soil receives 34
litres of water. This calculation is based on the
assumption that one inch of rainfall on one square feet

brings 2.35 litres of water. Hence, Somaliland which has an estimated area of 137,600KM2
receives some 50 trillion litres of water. Figure 1 on the right has more elaboration on the
calculation.
3.1.2 Soil Characteristics
If the top soil of sandy soils is absent and the bedrock is visible, water cannot soak in and will
run off rapidly. On the other hand, if soil is present, but is very fine-grained and clay-rich, the
pore spaces that water must pass through are extremely small; hence, water will infiltrate very
slowly compared to sandy soils that readily soak up water.
Somaliland has types of soils that reduce infiltration. Silt soil which is known to have slow
infiltration capacity is common in the coastal plain zone, while sandy calcareous soil type is
common in most of the coastal range zones and clay soil in either black or red colour is common
in the plateau zone. This means that the water infiltration into the ground in Somaliland context
is slow and there is a high risk of surface water runoff.
3.2 Deforestation
The main source of domestic energy in Somaliland is charcoal. In the production of charcoal
many trees are burnt each month, while no replacement takes place. This causes the land to be
without vegetation and lose the potential water infiltration caused by the plants. Subsequently
surface water runoff further erodes the top and fertile soil, hindering the possibilities of future
vegetation renewal. This is becoming a major challenge for feeding livestock in Somaliland.
3.3 Mountain Slopes
Mountain slopes tend to generate more runoff than lowland or flat areas. On flat areas, water
may temporarily pond and later soak in. But on steep mountainsides, water tends to move
downward more rapidly and also accelerates the surface water runoff in nearby flat areas.
As mentioned, Somaliland is rich in mountainous landscape, which creates highly accelerated
surface water runoff in the rainy seasons which will not give good chances for infiltration.
3.4 Urbanisation and Human Influence
Urbanisation increases surface water runoff, by creating more impervious surfaces such as
pavements and buildings that do not allow infiltration of water into the soil. Surface water instead
runs off directly into the streams or water runoff drainages and causes flooding and soil erosion.
Somaliland suffers urban surface water runoff especially in cities that have hills like Hargeisa,
which is the capital city. In Hargeisa the top soil has been washed away in major areas of the
land and bedrock is visible.
Most of the houses have no rooftop water harvesting mechanisms and most of the rain water
that falls on rooftops contributes to the runoff. Drains which were built in the colonial period are

very limited and were not designed in consideration of water infiltration mechanisms, hence
these contribute to surface water runoff.
When surface water runoff is contaminated by chemicals, this creates water pollution,
environmental damage and health issues. The polluted surface water can reach vast areas such
as streams, shallow wells and the Red Sea which will result in chemical changes of these water
systems and their related ecosystems.
3.5 Limited Surface Water Harvesting Infrastructure
Limited infrastructure for harvesting surface water runoff in Somaliland is also a major factor
influencing the surface water runoff. The following table shows the quantity of surface water
harvesting facilities available in 2013.
Table 1: Quantity of surface water harvesting infrastructure in Somaliland in 2013
No. Description Region Total
M.jeex Awdal Sanaag Sool Sahil Togdheer
1 Communal dams
(Ballys)
10 8 2 3 7 4 34
2 Subsurface dams 16 10 8 4 3 16 57
Source: Ministry of Water Resources
Therefore, surface water harvesting infrastructure needs to be increased from 34 communal
dams and 57 sub-surface dams to a significant number that can meet the surface water
harvesting needs in an estimated area of 137,600KM2 which is the total area of Somaliland.
3.6 Compaction of the Soil
Compaction of the soil reduces the size of pore spaces and the infiltration rate. Water commonly
runs off in areas that are compacted through repeated passage of people, large animals or
vehicles.
Nomadic communities in Somaliland, which represent 55% of the population, move from one
place to another, seeking water and food. This culture of nomadic herding existed in Somaliland
throughout its known history. The regular movement of people and large animals such as
camels and the creation of new settlements causes the soil to be compacted, and hence water
will not infiltrate into the soil easily but rather run off. Also, raindrops falling on bare soil where
vegetation is missing can end up on running off or can even further compact the soil surface
leading to increased runoff and erosion.

Figure 2: Gully erosion, MoERD
4 Negative Impacts of Water Runoff in Somaliland
4.1 Soil Erosion and Reduced Crop Productivity
If the top soil is eroded, surface water runoff may deposit soil at a considerable distance away
and this can even reach the sea. Types of soil erosion that are caused by surface water runoff
are the following:
 Sheet erosion: the flow of the top soil like a sheet
by the act of surface water runoff;
 Rill erosion: small linear channels are formed by
the act of surface water runoff;
 Gully erosion: the formation of channels in the
earth, where the soil has been removed to
considerable depth by the act of surface water
runoff;
 Splash erosion: happens when raindrops fall on
bare soil and move soil particles over a small
distance. Although the effect of this type of erosion
is not significant initially, it facilitates surface water runoff, which carries particles away.
Surface water runoff can also negatively affect farmland. The cultivable area of irrigation farms
which are mostly situated along the banks of streams is subject to floods and is, therefore, in
danger of being washed away. This reduces crop productivity, resulting either from the erosion
of the cultivable land or from floods that wash away the new plantations. In Somaliland, it is
believed that significant area of the land has become unsuitable for crop farming, due to the soil
erosion.
4.2 Transport of Chemicals and Endangering the Ecosystem
Surface water runoff can transport water pollutants such as chemicals which ultimately leads to
risks for human health, plants and other living things. Some of the contaminants are pesticides,
fertilizers and petroleum substances such as engine oil.
In the case of groundwater, surface water runoff can contaminate the aquifer of shallow wells or
directly reach the opening of wells and springs.
Hargeisa town has experienced surface water runoff contamination. A centre, intended to store
chemicals to tackle locusts in the entire east Africa region, was established in Hargeisa, nearby
the mountain slope of “Isha Borama” village at the time of the British colony and existed until the
fall of the Siyaad Barre regime. The centre was destroyed in the civil war and many chemicals
stored there were washed away into streams. In the past two decades this has caused major
health problems or even death of humans and livestock who made contact with the water supply
or vegetation in that area. Many shallow wells located in or near the streams were abandoned
and many small farms were destroyed as a result.

Figure 3: Water table recharging process
4.3 Decrease of the Water Table
Water table is the highest underground level at which
the rocks and soil in a particular area are completely
wet with water. Water table is where the ground water
comes from. If the surface water infiltrates into the soil,
it usually recharges the water table or the aquifer. But
the water table goes down if the surface water does
not infiltrate to the soil, hence, there would be
possibilities of water shortages.
5 Possible Mitigation Measures of Surface Water Runoff
5.1 Forestation and Protection of Plants
In general, plants and small animals tend to increase the infiltration rate of soils. A plant cover
and a small layer of dead vegetation protects the soil surface from compaction, and also slows
the delivery of water to the soil surface. Plant stems help to slow down water that flows over the
soil surface. Plant roots also help to create openings in the soil.
When the landscape is completely de-vegetated, which is often the case in Somaliland, a
dramatic increase of surface water runoff and soil erosion occurs, but if the plants and
vegetation are protected, water will rarely run off the surface and the soil will absorb most of the
rain water.
If we assume that one plant is planted in every 100 square meter of land in Somaliland, some
1,376,000,000 plants are needed, and the estimated costs for this program could be:
Table 2: Estimated costs of forestation and protection of plants
No Description Lead
Agency
Quantity Unit price
($)
Total
amount ($)
1 Preparation of plant nursery (assuming
purchase of seeds and plastic bags only
and rest of activities undertaken by the
community) – 76 plants/person/month by
half a million people
MoERD 1,376,000,000
plants
0.2 275,200,000
2 Afforestation (Community led) -76
plants/person/month by half a million
people
MoERD Activity
undertaken by
the community
3 Guarding and watering (Community led) -
76 plants/person/month by half a million
people
MoERD Activity
undertaken by
the community
4 Community mobilisation activities (300
days for 100 persons)
MoERD 30,000 man days 30 900,000
5 Overhead costs 3% MoERD 8,283,000
Subtotal 284,383,000

5.2 Management of Chemicals and Eradication of Existing Chemical Waste
Industrial waste and agricultural chemicals should have an approving and controlling mechanism
for their sale, use, storage and disposal.
Farmers can minimise the use of fertilizers or manures by applying these nutrients based on
actual needs, identifying soil type, crop yield goals and field features. Farmers may also use
natural pest management techniques and reduce reliance on chemical pesticides.
Existing chemical waste such as that of the anti-locust pesticide centre in Hargeisa and that of
Da’arbudhuq leather factory, should be removed from the environment. The Government should
also undertake measurements against motor vehicle users who waste petroleum substances on
the land.
The following table illustrates possible costs for managing chemicals and eradicating existing
chemical waste:
Table 3: Estimated costs for management of chemicals and eradication of existing
chemical wastes
No Description Lead
Agency
Quantity Unit
price ($)
Total
amount ($)
1 Consultancy (Policy development) MoA 200 hours 50 10,000
2 Consultancy (risk assessment &
developing a mitigation plan)
MoA 400 hours 50 20,000
3 Implementation of mitigation plan MoA Lump
sum
1,000,000 1,000,000
4 Overhead costs (6%) MoA 61,800
5 Contingencies 139,100
Subtotal 1,230,900
5.3 Controlling Water Runoff on Mountain Slopes
Control of water runoff on mountain slopes may include the use of barriers to slow down water
runoff, e.g. installation of silt fences, geotextiles filled with sand and fibre rolls, while using fibre
and materials that have no negative effect on water quality. These measures can tackle water
runoff from sloping land.
If we assume that silt fences are installed in 600KM of the Golis Range Mountains, the estimated
costs for controlling water runoff on these mountain slopes could be:

Table 4: Estimated costs for controlling water runoff on mountain slopes
No Description Lead Agency Quantity Unit
price ($)
Total
amount
($)
1 Materials (silt fence) MoWR 600,000 mtrs 1 600,000
2 Labour force MoWR 50,000 hrs 10 500,000
3 Overhead cost (6%) MoWR 66,000
4 Contingencies MoWR 100,000
Subtotal 1,266,000
5.4 Decreasing Impervious Surfaces of Urban Areas
As mentioned, impervious surfaces such as roads, pavements and rooftops are major factors
that cause surface water runoff by not allowing the infiltration of water into the soil. Hence,
Government should develop policies and guidelines to avoid unnecessary impervious surfaces
in urban areas, to allow maximum water infiltration in urban areas. For example, pavements can
be constructed so that water can pass through and infiltrate into the soil, and streams can be
channeled to artificial basins that allow water to soak in.
These guidelines can be developed by the central government or local government. The
challenge will be the enforcement of such guidelines, most likely by local government.
5.5 Increasing Surface Water Harvesting Infrastructure
Increasing infrastructure for harvesting surface water, such as dams and rooftop catchments, will
minimise the amount of surface water runoff. Unlike groundwater, rain water is free from salinity
and salts. In addition, water quality can also be ensured by using filtration mechanisms e.g.
natural filtration and by using series of tanks, withdrawing the water from the last in series.
On-site natural features can also be used to stop or slow down the flow of surface water, such
as holding ponds on the ground. This increases water infiltration and helps recharge the aquifer.
The following table illustrates estimated costs for surface water harvesting infrastructure.
Table 5: Estimated costs for increasing surface water harvesting infrastructure
No Description Lead
Agency
Quantity Unit price ($) Total
amount ($)
1 Rooftop water catchment facilities MoWR 300,000 Can be part of
obligations required
from urban
households
2 On-site water holding ponds MoWR 1,000 Can be part of
obligations required
from rural
communities

No Description Lead
Agency
Quantity Unit price ($) Total
amount ($)
3 Earth dams (one at every 200
KM
2
)
1
MoWR 688 150,000 103,200,000
4 Gravity dam (Concrete masonry) MoWR 6 dams 10,000,000 60,000,000
5 Overhead costs (4%)
2
MoWR 163,200,000 6,528,000
5.6 Reducing Compaction of the Soil by Changing Nomadic Herding
Behaviour
Soil compaction in Somaliland can be reduced by adopting and enforcing a policy that changes
nomadic herding to commercial herding, whereby the rural citizens get the opportunity to settle
and change their migratory life behaviour.
If this policy is successfully implemented, the creation of new settlements and the movement of
people, vehicles and animals will be reduced in fragile rural areas, hence soil compaction will
decrease. In addition, the quality of livestock and their by-products will improve and life of rural
society in Somaliland will be enhanced by people gaining access to basic social services such
as health, education, etc.
The following table illustrates estimated costs of changing the nomadic herding behaviour.
Table 6: Estimated costs for changing nomadic herding behaviour
No Description Lead
Agency
Quantity Unit
price ($)
Total
amount ($)
1 Assessment (100days*50 persons) MoERD 5,000 man days 30 150,000
2 Settlement planning (100days *50persons) MoERD 5,000 man days 30 150,000
3 Re-organise existing settlements in one
settlement per every 200 square kilometre
(mobilisation activities) – 200days*100
persons)
MoERD 20,000 man days 30 600,000
4 Basic social services (water, health,
education)
MoWR Included in line
ministry’s budget
5 Road infrastructure RDA Included in line
ministry’s budget
6 Support services (Farming tools, animal
health facilities, commercial packages
based on number of nomadic people –
55% of the population)
MoA 2,117,500 100 200,117,500
7 Overhead costs (3%) 6,030,525
1
Estimated costs include feasibility and design costs. The same applies to budget item 4.
2
Estimated costs include monitoring costs, consultancy fees, salaries, etc.

5.7 Total Estimated Costs and Time Frame for the Proposed Mitigation
Measures
5.7.1 Total Estimated Costs
Table 7: Total estimated costs for the proposed mitigation measures
No Description Lead Agency Total amount ($)
1 Forestation and protection of plans MoERD 284,383,000
2 Management of chemicals MoA 1,230,900
3 Control of water runoff on mountain slopes MoWR 1,266,000
4 Increase infrastructure of surface water harvesting MoWR 169,728,000
5 Changing nomadic herding behaviour Various 207,048,025
Total cost of the
initiative
663,655,925
5.7.2 Timeframe
Table 8: Timeframe for the proposed mitigation measures
Duration (years/quarters)
N Activities 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 Preparatory planning
2 Proposal development
3 Mapping exercises
(Donors & Beneficiaries)
4 Feasibility & design activities
IMPLEMENTATION PHASE
1 Forestation and protection of
Plants
2 Management of chemicals
3 Control of water runoff on
mountain slopes
4 Decreasing impervious
surfaces of urban areas
5 Increase infrastructure of
surface water harvesting
6 Change nomadic herding
behaviour

Figure 4: Surface water runoff
in Hargeisa (April, 2015)
6 Conclusions
Surface water runoff in Somaliland has a strong negative impact in
terms of economic, social and environmental aspects and needs to
be addressed quickly. Somaliland is now losing every year the
potential benefits of utilising 50 trillion litres of rain water.
Based on the figures of surface water harvesting infrastructure
mentioned in table 1 of this paper, not even 1% of this rain water is
saved. In contrast, if we assume that 10% of annual rain water runs
off, 3.4 litres of water will move on in every single one feet square of
land in Somaliland, we can imagine what happens to the soil if you
pour 3.4 litres of water on one feet square of land and then think
about what the scale of the water runoff problem looks like (see
figure 4 on the right).
Hence, as Somaliland urgently needs economic development and a
sustainable environment, factors causing water runoff in Somaliland,
as well as the consequences resulting from water runoff, should be
tackled by both public and private institutions.
The next stage of this paper will be to circulate it to the Ministries of
Agriculture, Environment and Water Resources, as well as non-governmental organisations that
have stake in the development of Somaliland’s environment and surface water, to provide their
input and turn this paper into a draft proposal ready for consultation with stakeholders.
7 Recommendations
Surface water runoff is happening in Somaliland because of nature and mankind, and the
causes of surface water runoff have not been tackled, although country-wide effective mitigation
measures are needed.
Possible reasons for not tackling the causes of surface water run off can be lack of awareness,
lack of technical expertise, lack of funds and lack of commitment.
Although the current Government has made a lot of efforts to improve the environment, few
government-led campaigns have been launched to tackle the negative effects of surface water
runoff.
Government budget policies towards the water and environment sectors are a major factor that
hinder the implementation of country-wide strategies to tackle the negative effects of surface
water runoff. For example, the 2015 Government budget only allocates 0.92% to the water and
environment sectors.

One reason is that the Government has not yet been recognised and receives very limited
international support, while the local budget is very limited and needs to cover other government
priorities such as security, administration, social services such as health and education.
A possible way out of the existing problems could be:
 The international community should commit more funding for the water and environment
sectors. Although some funding has been provided by the international community, the
situation needs broader funding, whereby infrastructure development such as water dams
and forestation should be emphasised.
 The Government’s allocation to the water and environment sectors should be increased
from 0.92% which is really a very insignificant amount, to about 5% in the next few years.
 The Government should mobilise the general public and initiate country-wide campaigns to
improve the water and environment situation, especially surface water runoff.
 Some of the causes of surface water runoff can be tackled with minimal efforts such as
reducing unnecessary impervious surfaces and controlling water runoff on slopes, while
other causes need huge investment, especially afforestation, changing rural life from
nomadic herding to commercial herding and infrastructure development for surface water
harvesting.
Consulted documents
 Department of Statistics and Research (2010 Edition). Somaliland in figures. Somaliland:
Ministry of National Planning and Development.
 Eng. Abdirashiid Omar Osman (2009). Soil and water conservation manual: Ministry of
Environment and Rural Development.
 2015 Government Budget.

The Environmental Impact of Charcoal Production in Somaliland
Charcoal production is damaging the environment and will lead to loss of vegetation cover, soil,
water and fertile land. But people in Somaliland do not have other affordable and effective
sources of energy. Can alternative sources of energy be developed and marketed, instead of
using biomass energy?
Ilyas Hassan Osman
Ministry of Environment and Rural Development
June 2015

Contents
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................17
2 Background.................................................................................................................17
3 The Problem................................................................................................................20
4 Possible Energy Alternatives.......................................................................................21
5 Comparison of Energy Alternatives .............................................................................22
6 Conclusions.................................................................................................................26
7 Recommendations ......................................................................................................26
Tables
Table 1: Extent of prevalent land degradation types in Somaliland ...........................................19
Maps
Map 1: Land degradation types-Somaliland ..............................................................................19
Disclaimer

Ilyas Hassan Osman 17
1 Introduction
Charcoal is produced by slow pyrolysis, which is the heating of wood or other substances
without oxygen. Pyrolysis, or carbonisation, is initiated by heating a pile of wood under controlled
conditions in a closed space such as a charcoal kiln, with a very limited supply of air, which
triggers endothermic and exothermic reactions. The biomass converts, as a result of the
pyrolysis process, into a mixture of gas, liquid and charcoal.
Charcoal production is an important economic activity in rural areas of developing countries, and
an important source of energy in developing countries. Energy demands have increased
significantly in recent times as a result of population increase and urbanisation, and this increase
leads to higher consumption of wood fuel, particularly in the shape of charcoal1
. Fuel wood
consumption in Africa is predicted to increase to 544.8 million m3
for firewood and 46.1 million
tons for charcoal by 20302
.
Biomass is the main and, indeed traditional source of energy for the Somaliland population.
Charcoal is the principal source of energy in urban households and institutions for cooking and
heating whereas firewood is commonly used in rural settlements. This energy is generated from
Acacia trees that mostly grow in plateau zones. The natural regeneration of these trees is very
slow. As demand generally exceeds regeneration, deforestation becomes a serious problem.
Trees have many environmental, socio-cultural and economic benefits, apart from being
essential for the control of soil erosion and land degradation.
On the other hand wood fuels also serve as an income source of livelihood for most rural people
and for the large number of urban dwellers engaged in the charcoal and fuel wood trade.
Traditional economies can be defined as biomass economies. Rural livelihoods are intricately
linked to the natural environment and this makes the charcoal problem a delicate one to solve3
.
This paper seeks to provide answers to the following questions: What are the environmental
consequences of charcoal production? Can alternative sources of energy be developed and
marketed? What are the preferences of charcoal consumers for more efficient and affordable
energy sources? Answers to these questions will provide insight into how to deal with the
environmental problems presented by charcoal production, in order to ensure sustainable
management of the environment, particularly of forest resources.
2 Background
Somaliland, previously North West Somalia, is located in the Horn of Africa bordering the Gulf of
Aden in the north, Somalia in the east, Ethiopia in the south and the Djibouti in the west.
Somaliland was in the past known as the Somaliland Protectorate under the British rule from
1
Duku MH, Gu S, and Hagan EB (2011). A comprehensive review of biomass resources and biofuels potential in Ghana.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(1), pp 404–415.
2
Arnold M and Persson R (2003). Reassessing fuel wood situation in developing countries. International Forestry Review, 5 (4).
3
Gelder B and O’Keefe P (1995). The New Forest. International Technology Publications. London.

1884 up to the 26th of June 1960 when it got its independence from Britain. It then quickly
merged with former Italian Somalia to form the Somali Republic. The merger did not fulfil the
ambitions of the people and led to a civil war in the late 1980s. In 1991 the clans of Somaliland
got together and decided to sever ties with Somalia and reinstate its sovereignty.
Somaliland is semi-arid and has a warm climate, with low and erratic precipitation, high
evaporation, and a high risk of severe and frequent droughts. The country comprises three main
ecological regions: the coastal plains (Guban), the watershed mountains region (Golis) and the
higher altitude plateau (Haud).
Since the colonial period up to the collapse of Somali central government in 1991, there were
rangeland management systems, including legislations, laws, laws enforcement and different
development interventions that focused on the development of rangeland management.
Different grazing reserves were established and put in operation to cover the needs of the
pastoral society and their livestock, and avoid the depletion of rangeland resources. Moreover,
fodder banks and fodder production sites were established for different purposes, including seed
conservation, demonstration sites for extension and training.
The production of wood charcoal in locations where there is an abundance of wood dates back
to a very ancient period, and generally consists of piling billets of wood on their ends so as to
form a conical pile, leaving openings at the bottom for admitting air, with a central shaft to serve
as a flue. The whole pile is covered with turf or moistened clay. Firing is begun at the bottom of
the flue, and gradually spreads outwards and upwards. The success of the operation depends
upon the rate of combustion. Under average conditions, 100 parts of wood yield about 60 parts
by volume, or 25 parts by weight, of charcoal. Small-scale production on the spot often yields
only about 50%, and large-scale production can be as efficient as about 90%. The operation is
so delicate that it was often left to colliers (professional charcoal burners). They often lived alone
in small huts in order to tend their wood piles. For example, in the Harz Mountains of Germany,
charcoal burners lived in conical huts called Köten which are still much in evidence today4
.
Two main direct causes of land degradation in Somaliland are identified by experts: overuse of
vegetation and agricultural intensification. Over exploitation of vegetation occurs mainly through
gathering wood for fuel, fencing and construction materials, over grazing of livestock and
charcoal production. This is an un-controlled activity which selectively clears trees cover
(especially Acacia busei). Its effects are further complicated by the diminishing natural resilience
of the vegetation occasioned by frequent and prolonged drought in the last few years5
.
Prevalent land degradation types in Somaliland are: loss of topsoil by water and wind, reduction
of vegetation cover, gully erosion aridification, decline of palatable plant species, and soil fertility
decline in agriculture potential areas (Map 1). Although these types of degradation occur in
combination in many parts of Somaliland, generally the loss of topsoil by wind erosion is
dominant in the north-western coastal areas, aridification is dominant in the centre, and loss of
vegetation in the south-western parts of Somaliland. Loss of topsoil by water erosion affects the
largest area and can therefore be said to be the most widespread type of land degradation in
Somaliland (Table 1).
4
Wikipedia.
5
SWALIM Project Report L- 15 of 2009.

Table 1: Extent of prevalent land degradation types in Somaliland6
Degradation type Area (sq. km) Area affected (%)
Soil erosion by water 76661.09 45.21
Biological degradation 51673.45 30.48
Water degradation 16055.44 9.47
Soil erosion by wind 13520.54 7.97
Chemical soil deterioration 1365.61 0.80
Urban 47.44 0.03
Non-degraded areas 10235.75 6.04
Total 169559.32 100
Map 1: Land degradation types-Somaliland
The central areas towards the eastern part of Somaliland have more loss of vegetation cover
compared to the other areas. Some parts of south-western and western Somaliland also have
significant loss of vegetation cover. The dominant types of vegetation in these areas are grass,
forbs, sparse shrubs, and short trees. These vegetation types of grass and Acacia type of trees
are prime targets for pasture for livestock and charcoal production in Somaliland7
.
Another example is the strong vegetation loss pattern around Taleex settlement. In this area, the
Tiger bush landscape of mainly Acacia busei (Somali name: Galool) associated with
Andropogon kelleri (Somali name: Duur) is exploited for charcoal production and grazing for
6
SWALIM Project Report L- 15 of 2009.
7
Ibid.

livestock. A study by SWALIM on tree cutting monitoring in this area revealed an annual tree
density change rate of about 5%8
.
Somaliland has the lowest consumption of modern forms of energy in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Firewood and charcoal are the major sources of energy for the majority of urban people in
Somaliland. As a result, cutting trees in Somaliland is steadily increasing, following demographic
trends and changes in the traditional Somali nomadic way of life. Rural people rely on firewood
as their source of energy, while urban inhabitants use charcoal. Since most are poor, their
access to electricity is limited and unreliable, if not absent9
.
Somaliland is rich in energy resources, as it has un-tapped reserves of oil and natural gas and
an abundance in sunshine and wind, which could produce cheap energy. However, people of
Somaliland are still practicing their traditional ways of getting energy from biomass as a source
of energy, particularly in the urban areas. Meanwhile, 65% of the Somaliland people are
pastoralist10
, which means that every single tree is valuable to their grazing activities, apart from
environmental considerations.
3 The Problem
Wood charcoal is the main fuel used for cooking, across rural sub-Saharan Africa and to a large
extent in urban centres. More than 90% of urban households in sub-Saharan Africa use charcoal
as their main source of cooking energy and the demand is likely to increase with growing
urbanisation11
. Fuel-wood as charcoal is the preferred fuel for domestic use for the majority of
the population in Somaliland. It is also used in a number of small urban industries. Unlike other
forms for energy, fuel-wood does not require complex or expensive equipment to be used or
procured, and it is seen as part of the traditional way of life. Only a few people in the capital use
electric, gas and / or kerosene stoves. Charcoal consumption for the whole of Somaliland in
2000 was estimated at 480, 000 tonnes12
. In Somaliland the main species of tree used for
charcoal making is Acacia busei (Galool). Local preference is usually given to this because of its
high quality, but other species are also used as well. The over-exploitation of this tree will
eventually deplete these species, because regrowth is slow13
. Charcoal burning is often
practiced by pastoralists who do not raise sufficient income by selling livestock, and as a result
they often neglect their livestock as charcoal burning is very time consuming.
Charcoal production is an important source of income and part of the coping strategies of
subsistence farmers and pastoralists as the scarcity of alternative jobs makes this business
attractive for many of the young and unemployed male population14
. The rapid process of
urbanisation in the country over the past years changed charcoal production trends. Many
8
(SWALIM Project Report L- 15 of 2009).
9
Ahmed Jama (2004). Impact of Charcoal Production on Environment and the Socioeconomic of Pastoral Communities of
Somaliland case study.
10
Somaliland National Plan 2011.
11
Arnold, J. E. M., G. Kohlin & R. Persson (2006) Wood fuels, livelihoods, and policy interventions: Changing perspectives. World
Development, 34, 596-611.
12
WSP (2005) ‘Rebuilding Somaliland: Issues and Possibilities’.
13
Ibid.
14
Kirkland E. mongabay.com, 23.01.2011. http://news.mongabay.com/2011/0123-somalia_kirkland.html, 2011.

wealthy people joined the business and the number of charcoal traders who deliver charcoal to
Hargeisa, Buroa and Berbera also increased. Stiff competition over market opportunities and
woodland resources started between charcoal traders15
.
During the last 20 years, rangeland resource competition led to the establishment of private
enclosures in communal rangeland, especially in potential rangelands. Traditional nomadic and
livestock movements were restricted and marginalised. This affected both the socio-economy of
the pastoral society in particular and the Gross Domestic Product. Moreover, it contributed to
much environmental degradation and decreasing biodiversity, and most nutritious plant species
are now threatened or nearly depleted. The lack of rangeland management system and
extensive charcoal burning in the pastoral environment had the following impacts: reduced
carrying capacity, biodiversity depletion, development of unplanned water points serious soil
erosion/ gully formation, development of unplanned feeder roads, increased settlements and
increase of pastoralist’s vulnerability on droughts, reduced grazing areas, and rangeland
resource conflicts16
. These are clearly negative effects and this leads to the question: what are
affordable and effective alternatives to the use of charcoal?
4 Possible Energy Alternatives
There are a several energy alternatives to the traditional fuels of charcoal and firewood in
Somaliland However, there are few fuels which could be affordable and accessible to the public.
The available fuels and forms of alternative energies are:
 Kerosene: Kerosene is a fuel that can be used in most households and institutions in
Somaliland. It is a better option than charcoal because it is a low carbon fuel of the paraffin
type with a lot of energy especially for cooking and lighting. Considering the delicate
balance of the biomass, due attention should be given to kerosene as domestic fuel.
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG): Petroleum fuel is used in electricity production,
transportation and households. It is a promising alternative to charcoal for domestic use.
 Wind Energy: Wind energy is a great source of renewable energy in the country; it has
potential to contribute to the national electricity and mechanic power needs. Wind energy
applications in Somaliland are more suitable in the coastal area due to the wind.
 Solar Energy: Radiant heat from the sun is a promising source of alternative form of energy
in the country. In recent years it is becoming familiar in Somaliland.
 Biogas: Biogas is produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen.
Biogas is slowly becoming popular in Somaliland; it is produced in Sheikh Technical
Veterinary School by using waste from the slaughter house in Sheikh. It is also used as a
source of power in Buroa University and a few hotels. This form of renewable energy is
promising and needs further exploration.
15
Ahmed Jama (2004). Impact of Charcoal Production on Environment and the Socioeconomic of Pastoral Communities of
Somaliland case study.
16
Ahmed Jama, Report on Energy survey consumption and supply conducted in Somaliland, 2015.

5 Comparison of Energy Alternatives
Somaliland has multiple energy sources, both renewable and non-renewable ones. Renewable
energy is potentially abundantly available, but needs investment, technology, regulations, time to
learn, research and development. Unfortunately, Somaliland energy end users are not
acquainted with renewable energies and the least problematic to environment energies like solar
power, wind turbines, kerosene, LPG and biogas.
Somaliland people have a background of a nomadic culture, which may hinder the process of
developing an alternative to biomass energy. However, things are changing, as today’s culture is
accepting urbanisation, the level of literacy is growing, per capita incomes are gradually
increasing, levels of poverty are declining, and the rate of using of LPG and kerosene is
increasing growing, particularly in towns.
In the short term the best alternative energy sources would be kerosene and LPG, because of
good availability in local markets and good affordability, while solar and wind energy would be
the best sources in the long term. Solar and wind turbines energy need much research,
development and huge subsidies. It is difficult to start all possible alternatives at the same time
and it may be better to focus on one or two and take serious actions on these. Therefore, let us
compare available and possible energies that can be an alternative in the short run, in order to
reduce environmental damages caused by biomass energy. Recently the Ministry of Energy and
Minerals (MoEM) and Ministry of Environment and Rural Development (MoERD) are busy with
developing new techniques of energy conservation and substitution like the introduction of
improved stoves, the introduction of kerosene stoves, increasing the quantity of imported
kerosene and LPG, and encouraging solar cooking and heating so as to at least minimise usage
of woody forest products.
5.1 Technical Aspects
Kerosene: There are many different kerosene stove designs, but they can be broadly
categorised into two broad types, depending on how the fuel is burned: wick stoves, which rely
on capillary transfer of fuel, and the more efficient and hotter burning pressure stoves with
vapour-jet nozzles that aerosolise the fuel using manual pumping or heat. In low-income
households, wick stoves are more commonly used, because they are cheaper, they easily
provide simmer heat for some staple foods, and they have no nozzles that can get clogged by
soot.
LPG: also referred to as simply propane or butane, is a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon
gases, used as fuel in heating appliances, cooking equipment, and vehicles. It is increasingly
used as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant, replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to
reduce damage to the ozone layer.
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the sun, harnessed by a range of ever evolving
technologies. It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly
characterised as either passive solar or active solar power, depending on the way they capture
and distribute solar energy and convert it into power. It is the conversion of sunlight
into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar

power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to
focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current
using the photovoltaic effect17
.
Wind energy, also known as wind power, harnesses the power of wind to generate electricity or
power a mechanical process. Wind power is extracted from air flow by using wind
turbines or sails to produce mechanical or electrical power. Wind energy is an alternative
to fossil fuels, as it is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, not producing greenhouse
gas emissions during operation and not requiring much land. The effects on the environment are
generally less problematic than those of other power sources. It is a form of green power. Wind
power depends on three main factors: wind speed, turbine size and air density. The bigger the
windmill, the more power it produces, which is why the newest turbines have blades longer than
a blue whale (although somewhat lighter in weight).
Biogas: typically refers to a mixture of different gases produced by the breakdown of organic
matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as
agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste or food waste.
It is a renewable energy source and in many cases exerts a very small carbon footprint. Biogas
can be produced by anaerobic digestion with anaerobic bacteria, which digest material inside a
closed system, or fermentation of biodegradable materials18
. Biogas is mostly methane (CH4)
and carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have small amounts of hydrogen sulphide (H2S), moisture
and siloxanes. The gases methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide (CO) can be combusted or
oxidised with oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel; it can be used for
any heating purpose, such as cooking. It can also be used in a gas engine to convert the energy
in the gas into electricity and heat19
. Biogas can be compressed, in the same way as natural
gas is compressed into Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), and used to power motor vehicles.
5.2 Financial Aspects
Kerosene and LPG are the two principal clean energy sources that could be substituted for
charcoal for cooking in the short term. However, the initial cost and the cost of refilling the
cylinder together with safety issues present serious barriers to the regularly use of LPG for
cooking. Unlike LPG, kerosene is available in adequate quantities in the market, particularly in
big towns. In addition, kerosene can be purchased in any quantity, so low income households
can buy small quantities, like they do in the case of charcoal20
.
Kerosene is feasible for domestic use, although it is costlier than charcoal but the difference is
not too high. A family who uses three sacks of charcoal per month, at a cost of $30, can
alternately use 40 litres of kerosene at a cost of $39. And users with cash constraints would be
able to purchase it in small quantities like charcoal. And the price gap can be reduced with the
intervention of the Government.
17
"Energy Sources: Solar". Department of Energy. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
18
National Non-Food Crops Centre. "NNFCC Renewable Fuels and Energy Factsheet: Anaerobic Digestion".
19
Biogas & Engines, www.clarke-energy.com. Accessed 21.11.11.
20

LPG is available in the country, although there is only one vendor, which might lead to high
prices. In Somaliland most of the families using LPG are highly-income families with
sophisticated arrangements. The cost of the LPG for average families, with six to eight people,
might be $65 but will be higher when families are larger, but middle and high income families
can afford this.
Biogas still needs research and development and the MoEM is now involved in research on how
to utilise agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste or
food waste in positive ways, while local municipalities are now tackling solid waste and its
control.
The MoEM has already started to exempt solar appliances from taxation, to get cheap and
affordable energy. The Ministry is also committed to explore different kinds of solar appliances
and whether bringing a huge number into Somaliland would make these cheaper than the
presently available solar panels. However, both solar and wind energy need more research and
development as well as investment, apart from simple domestic use. Solar energy that people
are using now can only reduce energy consumption of electricity harnessed from gas oil. People
are not aware of wind power and do not know that this could generate energy.
5.3 Logistics and Marketing
Kerosene is the most readily available energy source in the market throughout the country,
because it comes together with other fuels like diesel and petrol. The fuel stations are the main
places for households to purchase kerosene. A litre is the unit of quantity for kerosene but the
common quantities in which household purchase kerosene for cooking range from 5 litre to 10
litre. This is bought three to five times in a month by large households which cook with kerosene
only, or less for those households use that use it as a secondary energy source or that are
small. Currently there are a good number of kerosene importers from Gulf countries and China
via the Berbera oil terminal, while some businessmen import from Ethiopia. Unlike other energy
sources, it has well-functioning market structures where it is available in quantities that are
adequate for multiple uses throughout the towns of the country. Kerosene can be purchased in
any quantity as is the case with charcoal. For households with cash constraints, the possibility to
buy kerosene in small quantities is attractive.
In terms of energy efficiency and environment impact, LPG is the cleaner energy source that
could be substituted for other energy sources used for cooking and heating. There is a sole
vendor called SOMGAS which imports LPG. This company has established a storage site in
Hargeisa, where it refills cylinders. Additionally, there are about 27 distributions sites across the
country sites which sell LPG but more are needed21
.
Solar equipment and materials are now becoming a self-driven engine. Without the
encouragement of people by Government or any other organisation, people are getting familiar
with this and are adopting this for lighting purpose, even in semi urban places. If these efforts
succeed many people will adopt solar power and it will attract more businessmen.
21

5.4 Risks and Disadvantages
There are some risks and obstacles to these alternative energies which compete with the wide
availability of charcoal in the market. People will not stop using charcoal as a source of energy
unless the Government develops and enforces a policy which bans charcoal production
throughout the country. Another obstacle is the initial cost and the cost of re-filling of cylinders.
This may deter low-income end users, which are the majority of end users, to take up and
regularly use LPG. In addition, the perceptions of people towards LPG and kerosene are quite
negative, because they believe that it is dangerous, as they believe that it causes fire in houses
and that the young cannot handle it for cooking in the kitchen as simply as they do when they
are using charcoal. Moreover, the high cost of kerosene stoves and the relatively high cost of
kerosene present serious barriers to the wider use of kerosene stoves for low-income end users,
who are the majority of energy users in the country.
There are obvious challenges, which serve as a disincentive against taking up and regularly
using LPG by the low-income end users, which is the majority of end users. On the demand
side, the initial cost and the cash needed for refilling, fear and lack of familiarity are major
barriers. On the supply side, transportation, storage, distribution network, unreliability as well as
lack of financial support during establishment of a company involved in the transportation and
distribution are among the major challenges in the sector.
A house mother told the author that she sometimes involves her children in the kitchen in
cooking but that she cannot leave the kitchen to a girl of 10 to 14 years old to handle the kitchen
if LPG or kerosene is used, while she can leave handling the kitchen if charcoal is used. Most
mothers are illiterate and they cannot believe that young children can be educated and could
easily understand any given instruction or read this from a leaflet.
5.5 Effort to Develop and Introduce
Changing traditional source of energy from biomass to renewable and less problematic sources
of energy is not easy. It needs more efforts and determination from all the stakeholders,
including government institutions, national and international NGOs, UN agencies, World Bank
and the private sector to make this change happen. Synergy of all stakeholders would have a
meaningful impact and the environment will benefit. Each of the stakeholders can play a
significant role in converting biomass energy users to alternative energies like solar, wind,
kerosene, biogas and LPG.
Government institutions can formulate policies and arrange for monitoring and enforcement, and
even ban charcoal and wood production. Government can also exempt tax on imported wind
and solar materials, kerosene and LPG and other materials needed for alternative energies.
Local Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) and Community Based Organisations (CBOs)
could take the role of promoting community awareness and of providing demonstrations, and
also implementing projects for enhancing alternative energies. In addition to that, International
NGOs, UN agencies and World Bank can play a role in financing projects for enhancing and
introducing alternative energies. Business institutions can also have an important role to play
which is making all goods and services required for alternative energy available in the market
and also advertising for these goods and services so people become aware of what is available.

A Commission for Quality Control should control and ensure quality and safety of imported
materials and the Fire Extinguishing Department should provide some lessons, particularly
through local media, on how to prevent and deal with fires from kerosene and LPG.
Efforts are also needed to create awareness within different target groups of environment
consequences of cutting trees for energy and of the advantages of alternative energies. This can
be visible by using all kinds of media, bill boards, role plays, radio, TV, newspaper, theatre,
puppet show etc.
6 Conclusions
Extensive charcoal burning in the pastoral environment has the following impacts: reduced
rangeland carrying capacity, biodiversity depletion, soil erosion, land degradation and gully
formation. Moreover, development of unplanned feeder roads and unplanned water points will
increase the number of settlements and increase the pastoralist’s vulnerability to droughts,
reduced grazing areas and create rangeland resource conflicts.
Introducing and adapting alternative energies might improve the condition of the environment
and the livelihood of pastoralists, since it will reduce deforestation and more people will get the
benefit of employment in new sectors. Stakeholders need to take up their roles within their
respective mandates and capabilities in order to move from biomass to alternative energies
(biogas, solar, wind, Kerosene and LPG). This is quite a long process but it needs the
commitment, determination and consistency of all stakeholders. Government has to take the
lead and coordinate with all stakeholders for realising their commitments.
In a nutshell, kerosene and LPG can become leading alternative sources of energy at this time,
while the use of solar power is growing day by day. The MoE&M is encouraging this, although
solar power is still used for limited purposes like lighting and heating. Wind and biogas need
more commitment and support for research and development and then for introducing these,
especially to industries and hotels for testing. Kerosene is abundant in the market and only
needs some intervention from Government such as exempting this from taxation to make this
cheaper. For many people it is preferable and affordable because they can buy any quantity as
they do with charcoal and incur less initial cost than LPG and other alternatives. LPG is also the
second alternative which is feasible and affordable, and which middle and highly income
households could afford.
7 Recommendations
Proper utilisation of trees and natural resources will enhance and ensure a sustainable
environment and natural resources conservation. This will gradually improve the environment
and pastoralists’ livelihood. Meanwhile ecosystems are interrelated to each other and if the
environment would have better quality, the conditions for people and livestock would also
improve. Appropriate natural resources management is required to at least reduce the adverse
impact on the environment.

Therefore, to ensure the recovery of degraded environment and to rehabilitate degraded and
depleted areas, it is necessary to take several actions to initiate change from scratch to some
possible level. This will never be credible or effective unless all stakeholders unite their potential,
whether it is Government, LNGOs, INGOs, World Bank, UN agencies or local communities. This
kind of commitment and solidarity can make a real difference.
In this paper the author is recommending the following:
 The Ministry of Environment and Rural Development (MoERD) has to lead a campaign of
developing and enforcing a policy which bans charcoal production for the protection of the
environment which has suffered over the last two decades due to cutting of trees and
improper utilisation of the environment. MoERD should also promote community awareness
of energy alternatives for introducing biogas, solar, wind, new kerosene stoves and also
LPG, and promote cost reduction. It has to effectively coordinate all stakeholders interested
to be involved in environmental issues including local communities, bring these together and
enhance their capabilities.
 INGOs, World Bank and UN agencies, especially those who are interested in environmental
concerns should think over and play their roles in financing development projects for
introduction of alternative energies and reduction poverty. So as to reduce deforestation and
high dependence of biomass energy. Research and development projects are needed to
develop the best alternatives that have the lowest price for low income households and are
least problematic to the environment.
 Local NGOs work regularly with the community and the community is listening and
accepting what they are telling, since they have been working since the collapse of the
Somali Republic government. Using that advantage, national NGOs can raise awareness so
people become aware and change their habits. National NGOs have good relations with
donors so they can advocate and lobby for funding projects to develop and disseminate
alternative sources of energy.
 In order to attract private sector and business institutions, the Government should take
actions like exempting taxes, so all alternative energy appliances could get easily in the
market.
 Community leaders and CBOs should also engage themselves to get involved in these
interventions and take steps with the community.
 Government media should also get engaged in this commitment to reach each and
everyone in the country.

Dacar-budhuq River taking away a Land Cruiser with passengers
Improving the Exploitation of Seasonal Rivers of
Somaliland for Agro-pastoral Use
Abdirahman Farah Omar, Abdirahman Abdisalam Sh. Ali, Khadar Ali Hassan
Ministry of Water Resources
June 2015

Target audience: WASH members (MoWR, Line Ministries, UN/International Org. LNGOS).
The purpose of the paper is to attract the attention of the major stakeholders of the Somaliland
WASH sector, under the leadership of the Ministry of Water Resources and the Ministry of
National Planning and Development as the mandated government institutions for water affairs
and development respectively, to the safe and wise exploitation of runoff water from rains that
are now lost to the sea, for domestic, livestock and agriculture food security and its
incorporation in planning of water development programmes. The purpose of the paper is also
to advocate for the establishment of a Somaliland rain water harvesting association.
Contents
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................30
2 Background.................................................................................................................31
3 Key Aspects ................................................................................................................32
4 Major Water Catchments to the North and their Potential............................................34
5 Relevant Experience Elsewhere..................................................................................34
6 Conclusions.................................................................................................................36
7 Recommendations ......................................................................................................37
Annexes
Annex 1. Rainfall Records for Northern Somaliland up to 1982 ..............................................40
Annex 2. Surface Drainage and Classification of Catchments in Somaliland..........................41
Tables
Table 1: Main water sources in Somaliland...............................................................................32
Table 2: Major Water Catchment in the North and their potential ..............................................34
Table 3: Estimated costs of river water source development.....................................................35
Table 4: Estimated costs of developing a strategy for exploiting river water..............................36
Disclaimer

Improving the Exploitation of Seasonal Rivers of Somaliland for Agro-pastoral Use
Abdirahman Farah Omar, Abdirahman Abdisalam Sh. Ali, and Khadar Ali Hassan 30
1 Introduction
Somaliland covers an area of 137,600 km2
and its population is estimated at about 3.5 million
inhabitants. Livelihood mostly depends on livestock food products and the economy of the
country depends on livestock export and remittances by the Somaliland Diaspora. There is
small-scale but growing agricultural production from rain-fed and small irrigated farms near the
banks of the seasonal rivers. The economy and livelihood of Somaliland depend highly on the
availability of water, which in turn relies on rainfall.
Climatically Somaliland is arid and semi-arid and it has two rainy seasons - the GU’ (March-May)
and Dayr (September-November) - and two dry seasons - Hagaa (June-August) and Jilaal
(December-February). Average annual rainfall is 350 mm but varies between different
geographical regions, as it is below 100 mm in the coastal areas, 300 mm in the Haud plateau
and 600 mm in the mountainous areas.
There is high evapo-transpiration which exceeds rainfall in the entire country. There is drastic
environmental degradation, partly due to the bad habit of charcoal production and to very active
soil erosion. Many cultivable areas have turned into bad land and this, in turn, has a negative
impact on rainfall patterns and the hydrological cycle. This much reduces production from
livestock and agriculture and the consequences are extreme poverty and hunger, which makes
the realisation of the first Millennium Development Goal (MDG 1) to eradicate the extreme
poverty and hunger, impossible.
Water scarcity in the rural areas affects school enrolment as most of the students lose their time
to look after water instead of going to school. This especially affects the female students and
undermines the realisation of MDG 2 to achieve universal primary education.
Hydro-physical conditions that negatively impact on the availability of freshwater include the
draining of nearly all available rainfall water into the Red Sea with minimal exploitation, taking
away fertile soil and damaging cultivable land. This is a chronic disease which makes the
country handicapped, as available water drains to the sea while people are suffering from water
scarcity.
Women are an especially vulnerable group in relation to water scarcity, since they are
traditionally responsible for fetching water and they have to travel long distances and lose much
time and energy due to this. This goes against the MDG 3 which is to promote gender equality
and women empowerment.
Water scarcity also increases the occurrence of water borne diseases, particularly for vulnerable
groups, and as a result child mortality under five is very high in Somaliland, which is not in line
with the MDG 4 to reduce child mortality.
A country is said to be water scarce when its annual per capita water availability falls below
1000m3
. Somaliland and Somalia have less than 500m3
per capita per year (UNICEF/MoWR
MICS, 2006). This is attributed to erratic spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall with average

annual amounts between 100 and 800 mm, high evaporation, and human activities that
exacerbate land degradation resulting in drastic deforestation that can definitely affect the
hydrological cycle.
Meanwhile, the impact of global warming and climate change is a reality in Somaliland as in
most other Horn countries, and there are increasingly prolonged dry seasons and recurrent
droughts. These do not only affect most of the agro-pastoralist communities, but also urban
communities which are faced with drastic water scarcity, particularly during the dry seasons
when the levels of the aquifers drop enormously and sometimes dry up completely.
2 Background
Although many organisations have been involved in the water sector of Somaliland, the demand
for water is still first priority. Previous interventions were limited to relief and rehabilitation
projects, but Somaliland has now to move into the development stage and tackle the problems
of water scarcity and the proper exploitation of the water resources of the country.
There are two types of water resources in Somaliland:
1. Ground water, including bore wells, dug wells and springs;
2. Surface water, including dams, barkads and roof catchments.
Surface water is the primary water resource that could be easily tapped for quick impact in
meeting the increasing demand for water while ground water is considered a secondary water
resource which most of the rural and urban people use during the dry seasons.
There are four major catchments in the country which drain runoff water to the Red Sea, and
there are six water catchments which also drain to the Indian Ocean. The quantities of water that
pass through these catchments are enormous, and the flow period sometimes takes four to six
hours. These flows block transport and travel between the regions, and the floods from the
runoff water take away trucks and passengers every year, causing death and loss of resources.
This shows the strength of the runoff water which also takes away the top fertile soil, leading to
soil erosion and land degradation.
The communities and Government of Somaliland are well aware of the waste of these valuable
resources which are not properly used and cause substantial damage, but no adequate action is
taken. So there is the need for initiatives since water demand is increasing exponentially and the
droughts and long dry seasons are becoming more common.
The Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) has developed a regulatory framework for the
administration of water resources of the country which highlights the importance of water
resources for development, health and livelihood, in particular of agro/pastoralist communities,
which suffer from water shortage. However these valuable documents are still not being fully
applied.

3 Key Aspects
3.1 Water Resources
Somaliland can be broadly classified into four zones. These are: Guban or Low Coastal plain,
Mountainous range and the Hawd and Sool Plateau/plains. Each zone has specific types of
water sources suitable to the geographical characteristics of the area:
 In the coastal areas the most common water sources are shallow hand dug wells and
springs. There are also a few strategic boreholes, mostly used by pastoralists.
 In the mountainous areas the most common water sources are shallow hand dug wells and
springs. There are no bore wells. Most water use is for agricultural and pastoral purposes.
Most irrigated farms are located along river banks and cultivate cash crops. These farms are
vulnerable to floods during the rainy season, which always damage the farms and the water
abstraction equipment.
 The water sources in the Sool plateau are mostly shallow hand dug wells, open karsic wells
and a few boreholes. A major problem in these areas is very high salinity due to the
existence of Gypsum anhydrite which is dominant in the area.
 The major water sources in the Haud plateau are barkads, dams and very deep boreholes.
There are good grazing areas, but few permanent water sources.
Most of the shallow wells and boreholes are located in or near a river bed and, as mentioned
above, are the only means for meeting the demand for water for all types of uses. Some
temporary water catchments are located in the upper or lower stream of these seasonal rivers,
such as earth dams or cemented barkads, but these dry up within a very short time. This leads
water users to concentrate on the quasi permanent shallow hand dug wells near the dry rivers.
The majority of shallow wells used for irrigated farms, livestock watering and rural domestic use
also dry up before the rainy season, due to drastic drop down of the water table. The major
reason for this is the lack of sufficient adequate recharge of ground water from runoff water
during the rainy seasons.
As a result of this, many farmers abandon their farms since they cannot get enough water from
their hand dug wells. The same applies to nomadic people who travel long distances for getting
permanent water for their livestock and families.
Table 1: Main water sources in Somaliland
SN Region Number of
boreholes
Number of
shallow wells
Number of
springs
Number of earth
dams
1 Awdal 32 92 37 10
2 Sanag 30 104 31 5
3 Sool 17 95 7 10
4 Togdheer 83 90 25 25
5 North west 84 213 27 20
Total 246 594 127 70
Extract from FAO/SWALIM report
1
.
1
Somaliland Strategic Water Sources Inventory, 2012, Dr. Abdirazak Jama Nur (Project Coordinator).

The only appropriate coping mechanism is to harvest and store the runoff water to store or
recharge underground water so that shallow wells can hold water throughout the year, but this is
beyond the capacity of the rural communities and the Ministry has not yet put this into practice.
3.2 Droughts and Long Dry Seasons
Water shortage and droughts are common and both nomadic people and their livestock are
suffering much during the dry season. Water trucking is common in Sool Plateau and Hawd and
people suffer much during prolonged dry seasons and droughts which are recurrent during the
past two decades. For nomadic people it is too expensive to pay for the water for domestic use
and livestock needs (sometimes the price of one drum of water reaches $10), so they have to
travel long distances which requires more time and energy than they can afford. The most
vulnerable communities are the poor agro-pastoralists, and most of them go to urban centres as
internally displaced people, where they start another, even more difficult life.
3.3 Water Borne Diseases
The water in the barkads and dams is often highly polluted with organic matter, silt and
sometimes garbage, since it is not protected and sanitation measures are not introduced during
construction. There is also a high likelihood of biological contamination and water borne
diseases are common in these areas and vulnerable groups of the communities suffer every
year, especially old aged people, women and children.
3.4 Water-based Conflicts
Water can be the cause of conflict when it is scarce and it can create conflicts between the
various users if there are no strong and properly enforced regulations for the allocation of water
between different users. There often is strong rivalry between pastoralist and farming
communities and there often are confrontations, particularly during the implementation of new
water schemes, when tribal conflicts occur between communities in connection with water
resources and grazing areas.
3.5 Lack of Data
There are not enough data on water availability throughout the country, as there were no studies
carried out after the collapse of Siyad-Barre Government. Knowledge on both underground and
surface water is limited, and there are no representative rain gauge network systems in the
country. FAO/SWALIM have installed a few in the country (twenty), but these are dispersed
across a few agricultural districts.
There are no meteorological agencies which can predict droughts and possible floods from
heavy storms, so people could be warned and prepared for the disasters and climate change.
The Ministry of Water Resources has a very small data bank, assisted by FAO/SWALIM, but this
does not provide adequate information for decision making.

4 Major Water Catchments to the North and their Potential
There are four major water catchments in the west of Somaliland which drain the runoff water
towards the Red Sea. Large quantities of water pass through these every year as indicated in
the following table. These four catchments alone can provide a total of 3,702 million cubic
metres per year which is enough for 3.7 million people using 1000 cubic meters per year
including their economic dependents (which is nearly the population of Somaliland). We can
imagine that the problem of water scarcity can be solved if all catchments are exploited.
Table 2: Major Water Catchment in the North and their potential
SN Name of the
catchment
Area
(in
Kms2)
Average
annual
rainfall
Water in
million
m3
/year
Remarks
1 Toga
Waheen
3,000 300 mm/year 900 Can cover the demand of
900,000 persons/1000CUM
year
2 Toga Biji 3,560 300 mm/year 1,068 Can cover the demand of
1,068,000
persons/1000CUM year
3 Toga Durdur 3,850 300 mm/year 1,155 Can cover the demand of
1,155,000
persons/1000CUM year
4 Toga Salel 1,930 300 mm/year 579 Can cover the demand of
579,,000 persons/1000CUM
year
Total 12,240 300 mm/year 3,702 Can supply 3,702,000
person
Source: Faillace C. and E.R. Faillace, Water Quality Data Book of Somalia. Hydrogeology and Water
Quality of Southern Somalia. Vol 1, 1986. Dag Hammarsk joid-Weg 1+2 Postfach 5180, D 6236 Eschborn,
Federal Republic of Germany.
5 Relevant Experience Elsewhere
The principles and technologies applicable to rainwater exploitation are wide and different.
There are many countries in the Middle East and Sub-Sahara Africa that receive less rainfall
than Somaliland, but which effectively manage the meagre amount they receive throughout the
year. The best example may be Tunisia, where available rainfall throughout the year is nearly
100mm, and where no drop is wasted or drained to the sea. An 18 years Master Plan was
drafted and adopted for the safe exploitation of rain water of the major water catchments and
rivers, complete with designs and Bills of Quantity. Financial support by bilateral and multilateral
aid institutions was mobilised, and valuable wadi development schemes were implemented,
such as the construction of different water storage facilities, subsurface and sand dams for
recharge of underground water and water diversion schemes for irrigation, livestock and human
consumption.

The techniques that were used fall into three broad categories namely: In-situ, Internal (Micro)
and External (Macro) catchment RWH. Typically, a river water harvesting system consists of
three basic elements: collection system, conveyance system, and storage system. Collection
systems can vary from simple types for a household to bigger systems where a large catchment
area contributes to an impounding reservoir from which water is either gravitated or pumped to
use for livestock, agriculture or, after treatment, for domestic use. The categorization of river
water harvesting systems depends on factors like the size and nature of the catchment areas
and whether the systems are in urban or rural settings.
Tunisia has properly managed runoff water, using appropriate major techniques for human,
livestock and crop production.They implemented water harvesting schemes along the upper,
middle and the lower streams. In rural areas, they constructed micro and macro water
catchments which can hold rain water throughout the year and they have also established water
diversion schemes for irrigation and domestic use. These schemes help to eliminate or reduce
the effects of the droughts and the long dry seasons, to a considerable extent. The water
harvested from the rains can contribute to meeting the vast demand for water in the major
towns.
Communities in water scarce regions are mobilised to better understand the benefits of runoff
water exploitation in solving the problems of water scarcity which is their first priority. They are
motivated to organize themselves by establishing water user associations in each water
catchment and the National Rain Water Harvesting Association, with representation from all
regions and the districts of the country. Such organisation can speak with the voice of the water
users and can support the Government as well as the people in reducing water based conflicts
and attracting financial and technical support and it has worked well in Tunisia. It is very
important for Somaliland to learn about this and to replicate the success events.
Construction of runoff exploitation schemes is essential, but requires funds. The following table
shows the estimated costs of the construction of the river water sources development:
Table 3: Estimated costs of river water source development
S/N Water source/facility Cost estimate
in US Dollars
Remarks
1 Drilling borehole 200m including
equipment
120,000 Strategic borehole is Haud
and plain areas
2 Construction of Shallow well 6m
with concrete rings
9000 Livestock and rural use
3 Construction/excavation of earth
dam 200mx100mx3m
110,000 Haud plateau and the plain
areas
4 Construction of cemented barkad
20mx12mx4m
18,000 Hill sides and rocky areas
5 Roof catchment 300msq 200 House level and public
construction
6 Construction of sand dam/sub
surface dam 25m
20,000 Dry river bed
7 Diversion canals 1000m long 50,000 For irrigation

S/N Water source/facility Cost estimate
in US Dollars
Remarks
8 Construction of min water system
solar powered with infiltration gallery
including all infrastructure
35,000 Village water supply
including livestock
9 Construction of RCC elevated water
reservoir 25 CUM
12,000 Village/rural water storage
10 Animal troughs 5mx1mx1m 3,800 Livestock watering
11 Public kiosks 3,800 Public use
Source: Manual for Water Sources and Water Works 2012.
6 Conclusions
Somaliland still has a good potential for harvesting runoff water for domestic, agricultural and
livestock use, and tapping this potential could reduce the hardship of many farmers and
pastoralists.
In order to tackle the above mentioned interrelated problems a strategic action should be
prepared, which can help the Ministry of Water Resources in developing safe and wise
exploitation of river water and prevent losing this water to the sea, while people and their
economic dependents need it.
In order to tackle the problems of water shortage in the country there is the need to stop runoff
water of seasonal rivers and use it for domestic use, livestock watering and irrigation. This will
require large, complex and costly efforts and so there is, first of all, the need to prepare sound
plans for a comprehensive twenty years programme.
Based on that, this paper is proposing the following activities and funds which are very important
for preparing for exploiting the seasonal rivers of Somaliland for agro/pastoral use, summarised
below:
Table 4: Estimated costs of developing a strategy for exploiting river water
SN Activity Costs in US $ Remarks
1 Carry out a study tour for six members
of the Somaliland WASH sector to learn
about dry river water techniques
70,000 Tunisia or any other
relevant place
2 Installation of 100 rain gauge in 60
districts and 6 weather stations in the 6
six regions
150,000 Collect all previous data,
engage Ministry technical
staff
3 Collection of all available data and
compile it in the data centre of the
Ministry
60,000 Put all collected data into
the data centre
4 Draft 18 years strategic plan (Phase I
18 months, Phase II 5 years and phase
III 8 years) on river water harvesting
and develop designs for model sand
120,000 Hire two consultants and
engage Ministry technical
staff to draft designs with
BOQs

SN Activity Costs in US $ Remarks
dam, subsurface dam and water
diversion pilot activities
5 Conduct workshop for all stakeholders
on runoff water exploitation and
establish Somaliland rainwater
harvesting association
15,000 Invite 60 participants from
the WASH sector
decision makers
6 Implement Phase I
6 sand dams, 6 shallow wells with
infiltration galleries and all infrastructure
in 4 catchments as pilot project
1,472,000 Implement the pilot
project in 18 months
7 Implement Phase II
60 sand dams, 126 shallow wells with
infiltration galleries and all infrastructure
in major catchments, construction of 20
high capacity Dams, 10 diversion
canals for irrigation 2-10 kms and 100
roof catchment for schools/health post
14,720,000 Implement phase II in all
seasonal rivers for
human, livestock and
agriculture use
8 Phase III
Carry out review meeting to evaluate
the achievements/constraints and
the planning for the phase III
activities
12,000 Invite all the partners 68
partners
Total $ 16,619,000
7 Recommendations
This paper has highlighted that, despite the scarcity of water in Somaliland, available rainwater
could be sufficient to meeting the vast demand for water for both domestic use and livestock and
agriculture food production. This can be realised through several steps, including:
 Collecting all available hydrological data which exist within or outside of the country and
making these available for decision making.
 Installation of a comprehensive rain gauge network and regular river flow measurement, to
determine the quantity of water from each major water catchments, including those passing
through seasonal rivers.
 Participatory planning for an eighteen years strategic plan, consisting of short term (phase I,
eighteen months), intermediate (phase II, five years) and long term (phase III, eight years)
dry river water harvesting schemes, and of systematic construction of upper stream, middle
and downstream in order to reduce the velocity of runoff water coming into the streams.
 Transfer of the most appropriate technologies from relevant countries, and design and
develop easily implemented water works for optimal water harvesting, in particular

subsurface and sand dams, diversion canals for irrigation and high capacity storage facilities
which can store water throughout the year in drought prone areas.
 Develop and enforce a regulatory framework, guidelines, standards and specifications for
the wise use and allocation of water and introduce environmentally safe technologies for its
sustainable management.
 Develop a local and international trust fund for eighteen years program with private, state
and international participation.

Bibliography
Faillace C. and ER. Faillace (1986). Water Quality Data Book of Somalia. Hydrogeology and
Water Quality of Southern Somalia. Vol 1.
Muthusi F.M., Mahamud G., Abdalle A., Gadain H.M. (2007), Rural Water Supply Assessment,
Technical Report No-08, FAO-SWALIM.
Alaya, K.; Viertmann, W.; Waibel, T. (1993): Les tabias, Direction générale des forêts (Ministère
de l’Agriculture), Tunis.
Rainfall Records for Northern Somaliland up to 1982.

Annex 1. Rainfall Records for Northern Somaliland up to
1982

Annex 2. Surface Drainage and Classification of Catchments in Somaliland

How Can Agricultural Research Contribute to Improving
Agricultural Production in Somaliland?
Abdirisak Abdilahi Ibrahim
Ministry of Agriculture
June 2015

Contents
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................44
2 Background......................................................................................................................44
3 Potential Contributions by Agricultural Research .............................................................46
4 The Need to Link Research to Extension .........................................................................47
5 Conclusions .....................................................................................................................48
6 Recommendations...........................................................................................................49
Annexes
Annex 1. Proposal for a Department of Agricultural Research, Monitoring and Evaluation .....51
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