This document discusses various theories of motivation. It begins by providing definitions of motivation from different authors. It then categorizes theories of motivation into content theories and process theories. Under content theories, it describes Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory, McClelland's need theory, and Alderfer's ERG theory. Under process theories, it discusses Vroom's expectancy theory, Adam's equity theory, goal setting theory, and reinforcement theory. For each theory, it provides an overview and explanation of the key concepts and principles of that particular motivation theory.

1. THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
DR. MAHESWARI JAIKUMAR.
maheswarijaikumar2103@gmail.com

2. MOTIVATION
• “Motivation refers to all the
internal conditions that stir up
activity and sustain activity of
an individual”. GUILFORD
(1960)

3. • “Motivation is the process of
arousing the action,
sustaining the activity in
process and regulating the
pattern of activity”. YOUNG.

4. • “Motivation refers to the
states within a person or
animal that drives behaviour
towards some goals”.
MORGAN & KING (1975)

5. • Motive is an inner state that
energizes, activates or moves
and directs the behaviour
towards goals, and motivation
is the channelization and
activation of motives.

6. • There are several theories of
motivation. They are
discussed in the following
session.

8. OTHER CLASSIFICATION
• Theories of motivation can also
be classified as:
• 1. DRIVE THEORIES.
• 2. INCENTIVE THEORIES.
• 3. ABRAHAM MASLOW’S
THEORY OF MOTIVATION

9. CONTENT THEORIES
• MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY.
• HERTZBERG’S MOTIVATION
HYGEINE THEORY.
• Mac CLELANDS NEED THEORY.
• ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY.

10. MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY
• Abraham Maslow(1908-1970)
in his theory on need
hierarchy explains tension
reducing & tension increasing
actions of human behaviour.

11. • This theory explains on
human needs arranged in a
sequence of stages from the
most primitive to most
human.

13. • According to him needs at the
lower levels of the hierarchy
dominate an individual’s
motivation as they arte
unsatisfied. Once these are
satisfied the higher needs
occupy the individual’s
attention and efforts.

14. As we move to the top of the
hierarchy, a we find that a
person is nourished, safe,
loved & loving. Some go
beyond this in the quest for
fullest development of their
potentials or self actualization

16. • A self – actualizing person is
self-aware, self accepting,
socially responsive, creative,
spontaneous & open to
novelty & challenges among
other positive attributes.

17. HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION-
HYGEINE THEORY
• The two-factor theory (also known
as Herzberg's motivation-hygiene
theory and dual-factor theory)
states that there are certain factors
in the workplace that cause job
satisfaction, while a separate set of
factors cause dissatisfaction.

18. • Herzberg’s Two-factor theory
distinguishes between:
MOTIVATION FACTORS &
HYGEINE FACTORS

20. MOTIVATION FACTORS
• Challenging work, recognition for one's
achievement, responsibility, opportunity
to do something meaningful, involvement
in decision making, sense of importance
to an organization: that give positive
satisfaction, arising from intrinsic
conditions of the job itself, such as
recognition, achievement, or personal
growth.

21. HYGEINE FACTORS
• Status, job security, salary, fringe
benefits, work conditions, good pay,
paid insurance, vacations) that do
not give positive satisfaction or lead
to higher motivation, though
dissatisfaction results from their
absence. The term "hygiene" is used
in the sense that these are
maintenance factors.

22. • According to Herzberg,
hygiene factors are what
causes dissatisfaction among
employees in a workplace. In
order to remove
dissatisfaction in a work
environment, these hygiene
factors must be eliminated.

23. • There are several ways that this
can be done but some of the
most important ways to
decrease dissatisfaction would
be to pay reasonable wages,
ensure employees job security,
and to create a positive culture
in the workplace.

24. • According to the Two-Factor
Theory there are four possible
combinations as stated :

25. • High Hygiene + High Motivation:
The ideal situation where
employees are highly motivated
and have few complaints.
• High Hygiene + Low Motivation:
Employees have few complaints
but are not highly motivated.
The job is viewed as a paycheck.

26. • Low Hygiene + High Motivation:
Employees are motivated but have a
lot of complaints. A situation where
the job is exciting and challenging
but salaries and work conditions are
not up to par.
• Low Hygiene + Low Motivation: This
is the worst situation where
employees are not motivated and
have many complaints.

27. McCLELLAND’S
MOTIVATION THEORY

28. • Psychologist David
McClelland, is a motivational
model that attempts to
explain how the needs for
achievement, power, and
affiliation affect the actions of
people from
a managerial context.

29. • Mc Clelland’s need theory, is
also known as Three Needs
Theory. The three needs are:
• Need for achievement
• Need for affiliation
• Need for power

30. McCLELLAND’S
MOTIVATION THEORY

31. NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT
• Employees prefer working on tasks
of moderate difficulty, prefer work in
which the results are based on their
effort rather than on anything else,
and prefer to receive feedback on
their work. Achievement based
individuals tend to avoid both high
risk and low risk situations.

32. NEED FOR AFFILIATION
• People who have a need
for affiliation prefer to spend time
creating and maintaining social
relationships, enjoy being a part of
groups, and have a desire to feel
loved and accepted. People in this
group tend to adhere to the norms of
the culture in that workplace.

33. NEED FOR POWER
• People in this category enjoy
work and place a high value
on discipline. A person
motivated by this need enjoys
status recognition, winning
arguments, competition, and
influencing others.

34. • McClelland's research showed
that 86% of the population
are dominant in one, two, or
all three of these three types
of motivation

35. ALDERFER’S ERG THEORY
• ERG theory is a theory in
psychology proposed by
Clayton Alderfer. ERG refers to :
Existence, Relatedness and
Growth.

37. • Clayton P. Alderfer's ERG
theory condenses Maslow's
five human needs into three
categories: Existence, Related
ness and Growth.

39. EXISTENCE NEEDS
• Existence Needs
Include all material and
physiological desires (e.g., food,
water, air, clothing, safety,
physical love and affection).
Maslow's first two levels.

40. RELATEDNESS NEEDS
• Encompass social and external
esteem; relationships with
significant others like family,
friends, co-workers and employers
. This also means to be recognized
and feel secure as part of a group
or family. Maslow's third and
fourth levels.

41. GROWTH NEEDS
• Internal esteem and self
actualization; these impel a
person to make creative or
productive effects on himself
and the environment (e.g., to
progress toward one's ideal self).
Maslow's fourth and fifth levels.

43. • EXISTENCE NEEDS are the most
concrete and easiest to verify.
• RELATEDNESS NEEDS are less
concrete than existence needs
• GROWTH NEEDS are the least
concrete in that their specific
objectives depend on the
uniqueness of each person.

44. A COMPARISON

46. PROCESS THEORIES
• VROOM’S EXPECTANCY
THEORY.
• ADAM’S EQUITY THEORY.
• GOAL SETTING THEORY.
• REINFORCEMENT THEORY.

47. VROOM’S EXPECTANCY
THEORY
• Vroom's expectancy
theory assumes that behavior
results from conscious choices
among alternatives whose
purpose it is to maximize
pleasure and to minimize pain.

48. • Expectancy
theory (or expectancy theory
of motivation) proposes an
individual will behave or act
in a certain way because they
are motivated to select a
specific behavior

49. • Victor H. Vroom (1964)
defines motivation as a
process governing choices
among alternative forms of
voluntary activities, a process
controlled by the individual.

50. • Motivation is a product of the
individual's expectancy that a
certain effort will lead to the
intended performance, the
instrumentality of this
performance to achieving a
certain result, and the
desirability of this result for the
individual, known as valence.

51. • Vroom explains an
individual’s action in terms of
three variables within the
expectancy theory which are
valence (V), expectancy (E)
and instrumentality (I).

52. • Expectancy theory has three
components: expectancy,
instrumentality, and valence.
• Expectancy: effort →
performance (E→P)
• Instrumentality: performance →
outcome (P→O)
• Valence: V(R) outcome → reward

53. • The three elements are
important behind choosing
one element over another
because they are clearly
defined: effort-performance
expectancy (E>P expectancy),
performance-outcome
expectancy (P>O expectancy)

54. EXPECTANCY: EFFORT →
PERFORMANCE (E→P)
• Expectancy is the belief that
one's effort (E) will result in
attainment of desired
performance (P) goals.

55. EXPECTANCY is influenced by:
• Self efficacy – the person's belief
about their ability to successfully
perform a particular behavior.
• The individual will assess whether
they have the required skills or
knowledge desired to achieve their
goals.

56. • Goal difficulty – when goals are
set too high or performance
expectations that are made too
difficult.
• This will most likely lead to low
expectancy. This occurs when
the individual believes that their
desired results are unattainable.

57. • Perceived control – Individuals
must believe that they have
some degree of control over the
expected outcome.
• When individuals perceive that
the outcome is beyond their
ability to influence, expectancy,
and thus motivation, is low.

58. INSTRUMENTALITY:
PERFORMANCE → OUTCOME
(P→O)
• Instrumentality is the belief that a
person will receive a reward if the
performance expectation is met.
This reward may present itself in the
form of a pay increase, promotion,
recognition or sense of
accomplishment.

59. • Instrumentality is low when
the reward is the same for all
performances given.
• Factors associated with the
individual's instrumentality
for outcomes are trust,
control and policies:

60. • Trusting the people who will
decide who gets what outcome,
based on the performance,
• Control of how the decision is
made, of who gets what
outcome,
• Policies understanding of the
correlation between
performance and outcomes.

61. VALENCE V(R)
• Valence: the value an
individual places on the
rewards of an outcome, which
is based on their needs, goals,
values and Sources of
Motivation.

62. • Influential factors include one's
values, needs, goals, preferences
and sources that strengthen
their motivation for a particular
outcome.

63. • The valence refers to the
value the individual
personally places on the
rewards. -1 →0→ +1
• -1= avoiding the outcome 0 =
indifferent to the outcome +1
= welcomes the outcome

64. • Motivational Force (MF) =
Expectancy x Instrumentality x
Valence. When deciding among
behavioral options, individuals
select the option with the
greatest amount of motivational
force (MF).

65. • Expectancy and instrumentality
are attitudes (cognitions),
whereas valence is rooted in an
individual's value system.

66. • Examples of valued outcomes
in the workplace include, pay
increases and bonuses,
promotions, time off, new
assignments, recognition, etc.

67. ADAM’S EQUITY THEORY
• Adam’s theory of motivation
is based on ratio consisting of
inputs & outputs to
outcomes.

68. • Equity theory focuses on
determining whether the
distribution of resources is
fair to both relational
partners.

69. ADAM’S EQUITY THEORY

70. • In assessing the ratio of inputs
& outputs an individual
employee tends to appraise
the achievement/goal under
four referent points.

71. • Four referents that an
employee can use: Self-inside:
an employee’s experiences in
a different position inside the
organization.

72. • Self-outside: an employee’s
experiences in a position
outside of the organization.

73. • Other-inside: an employee’s
perception of persons inside
the organization.
• Other-outside: an employee’s
perception of persons outside
of the organization.

74. INPUT
• Inputs typically include any of the
following:Time,education,experience
• Effort,Loyalty,Hard
Work,Commitment,Ability,Adaptabilit
y,Flexibility,Tolerance,Determination,
Enthusiasm,Personal sacrifice,Trust in
superiors,Support from co-workers
and colleagues,Skill

75. • Inputs are defined as each
participant’s contributions to
the relational exchange and
are viewed as entitling
him/her to rewards or costs.

76. • The inputs that a participant
contributes to a relationship
can be either assets – entitling
him/her to rewards – or
liabilities - entitling him/her
to costs.

77. • Outcomes are defined as the
positive and negative
consequences that an
individual perceives a
participant has incurred as a
consequence of his/her
relationship with another.

78. • When the ratio of inputs to
outcomes is close, then the
employee should have much
satisfaction with their job.
Outputs can be both tangible
and intangible.

79. OUTCOMES
• Typical outcomes include any of
the following:
• Job security,Salary,Employee
benefit,Expenses,Recognition,Rep-
utation,Responsibility,Sense of
achievement,Praise,Thanks,Stimuli

80. PROPOSITIONS
• Equity theory consists of four
propositions:
1. Individuals seek to maximize
their outcomes (where
outcomes are defined as
rewards minus costs)

81. • 2.Groups can maximize collective
rewards by developing accepted
systems for equitably
apportioning rewards and costs
among members.

82. • Systems of equity will evolve
within groups, and members
will attempt to induce other
members to accept and
adhere to these systems

83. 3. When individuals find
themselves participating in
inequitable relationships, they
become distressed. The more
inequitable the relationship,
the more distress individuals
feel.

84. • According to equity theory,
both the person who gets
"too much" and the person
who gets "too little" feel
distressed.

85. • The person who gets too
much may feel guilt or shame.
The person who gets too little
may feel angry or humiliated.

86. 4. Individuals who perceive
that they are in an inequitable
relationship attempt to
eliminate their distress by
restoring equity

87. • The greater the inequity, the
more distress people feel and
the more they try to restore
equity.

88. GOAL SETTING THEORY
• The motivation and goal-
setting theory research of Dr.
Edwin A. Locke is widely
regarded among the top
management theories.

89. • Goal setting involves the
development of an
action plan designed
to motivate and guide a
person or group toward
a goal.

90. • Goal setting can be guided by
goal-setting criteria (or rules)
such as SMART criteria. Goal
setting is a major component
of personal-development

92. • Setting goals affects outcomes
in four ways.
• Choice: goals narrow
attention and direct efforts to
goal-relevant activities, and
away from perceived
undesirable and goal-
irrelevant actions.

93. • Effort: goals can lead to more
effort; for example, if one
typically produces 4 widgets
an hour, and has the goal of
producing 6, one may work
more intensely towards the
goal than one would
otherwise.

94. • Persistence: someone
becomes more likely to work
through setbacks if pursuing a
goal.
• Cognition: goals can lead
individuals to develop and
change their behavior.

96. GOAL COMMITMENT
• People perform better when
they are committed to
achieving certain goals.
• There are three moderators
that indicate goal setting
success

97. • The importance of the expected
outcomes of goal attainment, and
• Self-efficacy—one's belief that they
are able to achieve the goals, and
• Commitment to others—promises
or engagements to others can
strongly improve commitment.

98. REINFORCEMENT THEORY
• B.F. Skinner derived the
reinforcement theory, one of
the oldest theories of
motivation, to
explain behaviour

99. CONDITIONING

100. • The theory may also be
known as Behaviorism,
or Operant Conditioning

101. • Reinforcement theory is a form
of operant conditioning and
focuses on the environmental
factors that contribute to
shaping behavior.
• Reinforcement theory claims
that stimuli are used to shape
behaviors.

102. • There are four primary
approaches to reinforcement
theory: positive
reinforcement, negative
reinforcement, positive
punishment, and negative
punishment

103. • Reinforcement theory
provides two methods of
increasing desirable
behaviors. One is positive
reinforcement and the other
is negative reinforcement.

104. • Positive
Reinforcement: Give (+) what
individuals like when they
have performed the desired
behavior.

105. • Negative
Reinforcement: Remove (-) what
individuals do not like when they
have performed the desired
behavior (Griggs, 2009).

109. • 'Theory X' and 'Theory Y' are
theories of human motivation
and management. They were
created and developed
by Douglas McGregor in the
1960s.

110. • These theories describe two
contrasting models of
workforce motivation applied
by managers in human
resource
management, organizational
behavior, organizational
communication and organizati
onal development

113. • Theory X is based on
pessimistic assumptions of the
average worker. This
management style supposes
that the average employee has
little to no ambition, shies
away from work or
responsibilities, and is
individual-goal oriented.

114. • Generally, Theory X style
managers believe their
employees are less intelligent
than the managers are, lazier
than the managers are, or
work solely for a sustainable
income.

115. • Theory Y is almost in complete
contrast to that of Theory X".
Theory Y managers make
assumptions that people in the
work force are internally
motivated, enjoy their labor in
the company, and work to better
themselves without a direct
"reward" in return.

116. • According to the models, the
two opposing sets of general
assumptions of how workers
are motivated form the basis
for two different managerial
styles.

117. • Theory X stresses the
importance of strict
supervision, external rewards,
and penalties: in contrast,
Theory Y highlights the
motivating role of job
satisfaction and encourages
workers to approach tasks
without direct supervision.