This document discusses the special vulnerabilities of children and why it is important to create safe learning environments free of toxic chemicals. It notes that children spend much of their day at school during critical periods of growth and development, and that their bodies are still developing, making them more susceptible to environmental influences. While growth is most rapid from conception to age 7, development continues through adolescence as key systems mature. The document advocates taking steps to prevent unnecessary exposure to toxins in schools that may pose health risks to children.

1. Creating Safe Learning Zones:
The
ABC’s
of Healthy Schools
A Primer of the
Child Proofing Our Communities Campaign

2. Creating Safe Learning Zones:
The ABC’s of Healthy Schools
This report is a joint effort of member organizations of the Child Proofing Our Communities campaign’s Healthy
Buildings Committee. Child Proofing Our Communities is a locally-based, nationally-connected campaign formed
to protect children from exposures to environmental health hazards in or near public schools.
Grants from the Alida R. Messinger Charitable Lead Trust No. 2, The Bauman Foundation, CS Fund/Warsh-Mott
Legacy, Educational Foundation of America, Mitchell Kapor Foundation, New York Community Trust, Wallace
Genetic Foundation, and the Winslow Foundation fund the campaign. The Center for Health, Environment and
Justice provides coordination. The Child Proofing Our Communities campaign coordinator is Paul Ruther.
Acknowledgements
Many individuals and organizations have contributed to Creating Safe Learning Zones: The ABC’s of Healthy
Schools. Without their time, energy, resources, experience, knowledge and insight the primer would not exist.
We particularly want to acknowledge the ongoing efforts of the Healthy Buildings Committee of the Child Proofing
Our Communities campaign. The committee conceived of the primer as a community resource and their expertise
shaped the document from conception to completion. The committee members are listed alphabetically by
organizational affiliation:
Cindy Craig (AmeriCorps), Steve Ashkin (The Ashkin Group), Sarah Jones (Children’s Environmental Health
Institute), Mamta Khanna (Center for Environmental Health), Nsedu Obot (Children’s Environmental Health
Network), Sue Hughes (Gasport Elementary School Parents), Ruth Etzel (George Washington University School
of Public Health), Barbra Batshalom (The Green Roundtable), Bill Walsh (Healthy Buildings Network), Claire
Barnett (Healthy Schools Network), Mark Pfefferle (Maryland National Capital Park and Planning Commission),
Laurie Stillman (Massachusetts Public Health Association), Jayne Mardock (National Religious Partnership for
the Environment), and Lynn Rose (Western Massachusetts COSH).
The campaign would like to thank the following individuals and organizations that contributed sidebar stories and
provided comments on the primer. Their insight and willingness to share their experiences have immeasurably
improved this document.
Dr. John Santilli (Allergist/Immunologist, CT), Kagan Owens (Beyond Pesticides), Teresa Mills (Buckeye
Environmental Network), Robina Suwol (California Safe Schools), Joellen Lawson (Canary Committee, CT),
Mike Foley (City of Somerville, MA), Dennis Livingston (Community Resources, MD), Elodia Blanco (Concerned
Citizens of Agriculture Street Landfill, CA), Bethany Richards (Concerned Parents Group, MI), Mary Cobb and
Laurie Stillman (Environmental Health and Safety Committee, MA), Becky Weissman (Falls Church, VA), Paul
Wenning (Franklin County Board of Health, OH), Cathy Ross (Girard Concerned Parents Group, OH), Chris
Notareschi (Girard Intermediate School, OH), Doug Sacra (HMFH Architects, MA), Margaret Fitzgerald and
Kathy Hulce (Huckleberry Hill Elementary School, CT), Tom Green (IPM Institute of North America), Kim Ashton
(Massachusetts Technology Collaborative), Jeanne Hunt (Missouri ACCESS), Cindy Trahan (North Country
Union High School, VT), Mary Scarpa (North Country Union High School District, VT), Veronika Carella (PTA
member, Howard County, MD), Leo Barnabei (Radnor Township School District, PA), Judy Braiman (Rochestarians
Against Misuse of Pesticides, NY), Joan Davidson (South Bay Cares, CA), Ben Davis (Vermont PIRG).
The campaign would particularly like to thank Lois Gibbs, community leader at Love Canal, who provided the
overall vision and inspiration for the Child Proofing Our Communities campaign and for this primer. The primer
was skillfully wrtten by Shannon Nally. CHEJ Science Director Stephen Lester provided technical oversight.
James Tramel, CHEJ’s organizing director, coordinated the primer during its developing stages. CHEJ editor
Ron Nicosia copyedited the primer. CHEJ’s Barbara Sullivan did the layout , and campaign intern Janell Smith
assisted with research. Without the work of these dedicated individuals, the primer would never have been
completed in a timely and efficient manner.
For more information or to order copies of this report contact:
Child Proofing Our Communities
c/o Center for Health, Environment and Justice - P.O. Box 6806 - Falls Church, VA 22040
703-237-2249, ext. 21 - childproofing@chej.org - www.childproofing.org
August 2002

3. TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. SPECIAL VULNERABILITIES OF CHILDREN 4
III. TOXINS FOUND IN SCHOOLS AND IN BUILDING MATERIALS 6
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 6
Mold 7
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 9
Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA) 9
Asbestos 11
Radon 12
Lead 13
Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide 13
Dust 14
IV. BUILDING MATERIALS: FROM HAZARDOUS TO HEALTHIER CHOICES 15
Flooring 15
Paints/Surface Coverings 18
Interior Wood 18
Exterior Wood 19
Windows 20
V. THE INDOOR ENVIRONMENT 21
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) 21
Lighting 23
Integrated Pest Management 24
Cleaning and Maintenance 26
VI. DESIGNING A HEALTHY SCHOOL 31
Setting Goals and Objectives 31
Site Selection 32
Building a New School 34
Renovation/Remodeling 37
Portable/Modular Classrooms 39
VII. GETTING YOUR SCHOOL COMMUNITY INVOLVED 40
VIII. CONCLUSION: THE SAFETY OF OUR CHILDREN IS IN OUR HANDS 48
REFERENCES 52
RESOURCES 56
COMMUNITY STORIES
Teacher Becomes Anti-Mold Activist--Newtown, Connecticut 8
Getting the Poison Out of Playgrounds--Rochester, New York 10
Asbestos Contamination Shuts Down Entire School District--Brookfield, Connecticut 11
Building an Energy Efficient and Healthy School--Somerville, Massachusetts 19
Ventilation Problems Plague New Schools Too--Girard, Ohio 21
Fresh Air for Vermont Students--Newport, Vermont 22
Parent Fights to Reduce Pesticide Use--Glenwood, Maryland 24
Precautionary Principle Provides Protection from Pesticides--Los Angeles, California 26
Living on a Landfill--New Orleans, Louisiana 33
Healthy School Receives Pennsylvania Governor’s Praise--Radnor Township, Pennsylvania 35
Renovation Unleashes Problems--Lockport, New York 37
Good Things Happen When Children’s Health Is Placed First--Franklin County, Ohio 38
Parents Organize to Rid School of Mold--Mt. Morris, Michigan 45
School Receives Environmental Grants--Milton, Massachusetts 46
Yesterday’s Garbage Is Today’s Environmental Crisis--Palos Verdes, California 47

5. Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
Creating a safe environment for learning lower doses. For example, you wouldn’t
and for the social, athletic and artistic think to give a child the same strength and
activities that students participate in at number of aspirins as you would an adult.
school is a goal shared by national leaders,
school administrators, and parents Alarmingly, only an estimated 10-20% of
everywhere. This “safe environment” is childhood diseases and developmental
typically interpreted as a zone free of disorders are attributed to genetic factors.
weapons, drugs, offensive clothing and While the remaining causes are not well
bullying behavior. Measures such as strict understood (Landrigan, 2000), we do know
disciplinary policies, plain-clothed police that over the past 50 years, children have
officers, random locker searches, video been at risk for exposure to more than
cameras, and school uniforms have been 75,000 synthetic chemicals, especially the
adopted for security. 15,000 high-volume chemicals that are
widely dispersed. Less than one-half of the
This approach to safety, however, neglects high-volume chemicals have been tested for
hazards that may be more prevalent and toxicity, and even fewer have been tested
harmful to a greater number of students. for toxicity to children (NAS, 1984; US EPA,
These dangers may already lurk in a school 1998).
at its initial dedication and remain through
successive graduating classes. There are It is likely to take many years before scien-
dozens of chemicals that are present in tific research will be able to confirm the
carpeting, indoor wood products, vinyl links between chemical exposures and the
floors, toilet bowl cleaners, graffiti removers incidence of adverse health effects in
and weedkillers. Many of these substances children. For now, the best course of action
are volatile and will offgas into the air, is to limit and if possible prevent exposure
accumulating in well-insulated rooms or to these chemicals. Rather than waiting for
areas. The fumes from the offgassing of synthetic chemicals to be regulated, for
these chemicals may be inhaled. When children’s sake, they should be considered
children attend class, they may be exposed hazardous until proven safe. Parents,
to low-level chemical mixtures about which teachers, community members, custodians,
scientists understand very little. architects and school board members can
become public health stewards by prevent-
We do know that there are epidemic rates of ing the intrusion of toxic chemicals into the
childhood cancers and learning/developmen- fabric of school buildings. This can be most
tal problems in school-aged children (CDC/ effectively done before a school has been
NCHS, 2002; NCI, 1999). While many constructed, when there is time to find an
studies have linked arsenic and formalde- uncontaminated site and to select the safest
hyde to certain cancers and have shown building materials.
that lead causes neurological problems,
there are many unknowns. Most toxicity Unfortunately, the situation now is that
studies are based on adult males, who can children must actually become ill, whether
tolerate higher levels of exposure before it be a throat and mouth irritation, nausea,
experiencing adverse health effects. asthma or a learning disability, before we do
anything. The school is then put on the
With smaller bodies, children breathe more
defensive. Teachers and parents are often
air and eat more food, relative to their size,
held accountable for children not succeeding
and may be harmed in different ways at
1

6. Child Proofing Our Communities Campaign
in school when, in fact, environmental Creating Safe Learning Zones: The ABC’s of
conditions at the school may deserve part of Healthy Schools is the outcome of a
the blame. It has been observed, and is nationwide effort to eliminate practices
reasonable to expect, that environmental that place children at risk from chemicals
improvements will have positive results for in their environment – particularly schools,
individual students and the school as a parks, and playgrounds.
whole. Absenteeism may decline, students’
concentration may be enhanced, and quality This primer was prepared by the Healthy
instruction time increased. Buildings committee of the Child Proofing
Our Communities campaign and is the
There are no federal laws governing the third in a series of reports. The other
environmental health conditions in schools. reports are Poisoned Schools: Invisible
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Threats, Visible Actions, released in March
has been the most responsive agency, 2001 (CPOC, 2001) and Creating Safe
producing resources that individual schools Learning Zones: Invisible Threats, Visible
can use to diagnose and alleviate indoor air Actions, released in January 2002 (CPOC,
quality problems (US EPA, 2000). How- 2002). The campaign aims to connect local
ever, promising federal initiatives--the efforts across the country, raise awareness
Healthy High Performance Schools Act and of toxic threats to children’s health, and
health and safety grants for emergency promote precautionary approaches most
school renovations--have had funding protective of children.
withdrawn. As a consequence, parents,
teachers, and community members must We see this primer as the first step in
step in to fill the void. At the local level, preparing an in-depth report on
the communities need to galvanize and constructing, renovating, or maintaining a
sustain efforts to prevent hazardous school healthy school. We are distributing the
environments or remediate existing prob- primer to local school activists, PTAs,
lems. While legislation remains elusive, health committees and others. Their
perhaps the urgent need to address these comments will help us create a practical
problems will compel voluntary measures and useful resource.
to protect children’s health, creating learn- The chapter summaries that follow are
ing spaces where children’s abilities are not intended to serve as a guide to the primer.
compromised by toxins.
Chapter II, “Special Vulnerabilities of
Constructing or renovating a healthy school Children,” discusses why children are more
needs to be a cooperative effort between susceptible to toxins and how inadequately
parents, students and professionals from they are protected.
the fields of architectural design and
children’s health. Architects and engineers Chapter III, “Toxins in Schools and
are adept at designing structurally sound Building Materials,” explains the threat
schools. These professionals also specify from the most common toxic substances
what materials will be used in construction- found in schools. While the threats from
-from walls and shelving to plumbing building materials such as lead and
fixtures. While they may fully understand asbestos are subsiding, mold, vinyl, and
building integrity and durability issues, toxic fumes from carpeting present a new
very few are trained to consider the health generation of hazards.
effects of the chemicals these materials
contain.
2

7. Creating Safe Learning Zones: The ABC’s of Healthy Schools
Chapter IV, “Building Materials: From
Hazardous to Healthier Choices,” puts the
hazards identified in Chapter III in context,
identifying especially problematic building
materials. Materials containing toxins are
not essential to the structure or furnishing
of a school, and healthier alternatives are
available.
Chapter V, “The Indoor Environment,”
discusses ways to improve indoor air
quality and lighting as well as maintenance
practices that avoid the use of toxic
chemicals.
Chapter VI, “Designing a Healthy School,”
outlines the lengthy process of designing
and renovating a school from conception to
completion. It explains how to construct or
renovate a healthy school to avoid or
minimize toxic hazards.
Chapter VII, “Getting Your School
Community Involved,” explains how to
mobilize support for a healthy school
building and work with architects, school
boards, and contractors to ensure that our
children’s health is protected at school.
Chapter VIII, “The Safety of Our Children
Is in Our Hands,” describes steps that
parents can take to identify and address
some of the most common environmental
health problems in schools.
3

8. Chapter II
SPECIAL VULNERABILITIES OF
CHILDREN
During a critical period of their growth and period of their lives. Because their tissues
development, children spend a large part of and organ systems are still developing, they
the day at school. To needlessly place them are susceptible to environmental chemical
in settings that increase the risk of disease, influences over an extended time.
hyperactivity, or lower IQ is therefore
irresponsible, especially in light of recent Children move through several stages of
health studies that document an increased rapid growth and development. Growth is
incidence of childhood cancer and disease most rapid from conception to age 7. The
(NCI, 1998). Expressed first by parents, ensuing years, through adolescence, bring
health concerns about exposures to continued growth as crucial systems, such
chemicals in the environment are now as the reproductive system, mature.
being echoed nationally by the US Insulation of brain nerve fibers is not
Environmental Protection Agency, the complete until adolescence. Similarly, air
National Academy of Sciences, Physicians sacs in the lungs, where oxygen enters the
for Social Responsibility and the National blood stream, increase in number until
Parents Teachers Association. adolescence (Needleman, 1994).
All these groups agree that society should During these critical years, as structures
take steps to prevent childhood exposure to and vital connections develop, bodily
toxins that pose unnecessary health risks. systems are not suited to repair damage
Children attend school at least 180 days a caused by toxins. Thus, if neurotoxins
year. Taking measures to prevent children assault cells in the brain, immune system,
from being exposed to toxic chemicals at or reproductive organs, or if endocrine
school must be a critical part of any effort disruption diverts development, the
to protect children’s health. resulting dysfunction will likely be
permanent and irreversible. Depending on
What makes children especially vulnerable the organ damaged, consequences can
to environmental chemicals? include lowered intelligence, immune
dysfunction, or reproductive impairment
Children are not little adults (Landrigan, 1998).
Children are more often exposed to
environmental threats than adults and are Children’s immature systems are
more vulnerable to environmentally-caused less able to handle toxins
diseases. Of small size and still developing,
they take in more food, drink, and air per Because organ systems are still developing,
pound of body weight than adults do. Also, children absorb, metabolize, detoxify and
children behave like children. excrete poisons differently from adults. In
some instances, children are actually better
Children are still developing and able to deal with environmental toxins.
remain vulnerable through More commonly, they are less able and thus
adolescence much more vulnerable (Landrigan, 1998).
For example, children absorb about 50% of
During prenatal development, infancy, and the lead to which they are exposed, while
adolescence, children are growing and adding adults absorb only 10-15%. Their less
new tissue more rapidly than at any other developed immune systems are also more
4

9. Creating Safe Learning Zones: The ABC’s of Healthy Schools
susceptible to bacteria such as strep, to ear Children’s natural curiosity leads them to
infections, to viruses such as flu, and to explore situations that could expose them
chemical toxins (Needleman, 1994). to environmental hazards. For example,
they may enter fenced-off areas or polluted
Children eat more, drink more, and creeks and streams (Bearer, 1995).
breathe more
Children have more time to develop
Children consume more calories, drink disease
more water and breathe more air per pound
than adults. Their body tissues more Children’s longer remaining life span
readily absorb many harmful substances, provides more time for environmentally
and outside play heightens their exposure induced diseases to develop. Exposure to
to environmental threats relative to adults. carcinogens as a child, as opposed to adult
exposure, is of particular concern since
U.S. children ages one to five eat three to cancer can take decades to develop
four times more per pound of body weight (Landrigan, 1998).
than the average adult. Infants and
children drink more water on a body-weight
basis and they take in more air.
Differences in body proportions between
children and adults mean that children
have proportionately more skin exposure
(NRC, 1993).
Children behave like children
Normal activities increase children’s
vulnerability to environmental threats.
Their natural curiosity, tendency to
explore, and inclination to place their
hands in their mouths often exposes them
to health risks adults readily avoid.
Young children crawl and play on the
ground or floor and play outside. These
natural proclivities expose them to
contaminated dust and soil, pesticide
residue, chemicals used to disinfect or
clean, garden weed killers, fertilizers and
other potentially hazardous substances.
Air pollution impacts children more readily
because they are frequently outdoors and
physically active. They thus breathe more
pollutants directly and deeply into their
lungs.
5

10. Chapter III
TOXINS FOUND IN SCHOOLS AND IN
BUILDING MATERIALS
You’re reading the local paper when a children and staff have occupied the building.
headline in thick black letters catches your The heating, ventilation and air-conditioning
eye, “Growth Brings Need for New School.” system (HVAC) can transport these toxins
Reading further, you discover that this new throughout the school, and it can exacerbate
school will be built in your neighborhood. a problem by distributing contamination
This is the school where your children will from one part of a school to another. Air
spend many hours listening, singing, quality further deteriorates from indoor or
sharing information, creating art, running outdoor pesticide applications, the routine
and playing. use of harsh cleaning chemicals, and the
release of potent ingredients in markers and
Perhaps you don’t have children that will paints. Biological contaminants, such as
attend school, but you work at a school or mold and mildew, can waft through the air
across the street from one. Perhaps the and quickly spread over surfaces. These
school is merely a big project to which your sources create poor indoor air quality, but
tax dollars will contribute. Whatever your can be controlled or eliminated by careful
relationship to this school, everyone’s practices and by using effective, alternative
interests demand and justify a building products.
that will not only foster academic success
but protect the health of students, teachers
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
and employees.
In late summer, the “back to school” frenzy
The VOC family includes a variety of toxic
kicks into high gear. Students and their
chemicals, some with recognizable names –
parents hurry to stores to purchase
formaldehyde, benzene, and toluene. As
notebooks, folders, paper, and other
the name suggests, these substances are
supplies for the upcoming school year. One
volatile--meaning that they easily
item that appears annually is a box of
evaporate into the air. VOCs are
tissues. Stockpiling begins on the first day
dangerous to people since they can
of school for the runny noses and coughs
accumulate indoors and can be readily
that seem to be an inherent part of the
inhaled.
academic year. While these symptoms may
be caused by germs, often overlooked are
VOCs can cause short-term or long-term
other culprits, such as mold, or toxins in
health effects, depending upon the toxic
carpet glues, wood preservatives, cleaning
properties of the substance, length of
products and other building materials.
exposure, the VOC concentration, and the
Toxic chemicals in these products can
individual’s susceptibility. Symptoms
accumulate in schools to be breathed, eaten
associated with exposure may occur for a
or touched by students, triggering an
short time (acute) or last for long periods
immediate reaction or subtly harming them
(chronic) and perhaps, permanently. Acute
over long periods of time.
effects include nose and throat discomfort,
headache, shortness of breath, nausea,
Building materials such as paints, floor
dizziness, and fatigue. Cancer and damage
coverings, and sealants are often laden with
to organs and the central nervous system
toxins that emit harmful fumes after
are examples of chronic effects that begin to
6

11. Creating Safe Learning Zones: The ABC’s of Healthy Schools
develop during exposure but appear years Mold
later (US EPA, 1995).
Mold, sometimes called the “new asbestos,”
VOCs are found in paints and paint looms as a tremendous problem. The cost of
strippers; carpeting; pressed wood used in mold infestation in schools is formidable:
desks, shelving and wall materials; health problems, disrupted learning time due
cleaning supplies, glues, caulks, and to school closings or relocations, and the
adhesives; and pesticides. Formaldehyde, price of fixing the problem.
for example, is used in the glue that holds
wood fragments together to form Approximately 1,000 species of mold exist in
particleboard, plywood, and fiberboard (see the United States (NYC DOH, 2001).
Chapter IV). Sixty percent of the total Moisture is the key to mold growth. Indoor
content of oil/alkyl paints can be VOCs, mold typically grows in damp or wet areas
added as carriers for the pigment (Bower, such as bathrooms, basement walls, around
1993). The adhesives used between the windows, and near leaking water pipes or
layers of carpeting, backing, and the faucets. Common sources or causes of
subfloor emit VOCs. moisture problems include roof leaks,
deferred maintenance, condensation
Brand new products contain higher levels associated with high humidity or cold spots
of VOCs that are slowly released over time in buildings, localized flooding due to
into the surrounding air. In heat and plumbing failures or heavy rains, slow leaks
humidity, VOCs evaporate more easily. in plumbing fixtures, malfunctioning or
Tight, energy efficient buildings tend to poorly designed humidification systems,
trap VOCs, allowing the vapors to uncontrolled humidity in hot, humid
accumulate indoors. VOC-containing climates, and damaged or failed gutters and
materials should be well ventilated before drainage systems (US EPA, 2001). Ceiling
installation to allow as many toxins as tiles, carpeting, drywall, and insulation can
possible to escape. However, the length of serve as food sources for molds, which
this airing-out period depends on the require dead or decaying organic matter to
product. Some VOC levels, such as those in survive.
latex paints, fall significantly after a few
weeks, while others, in wood products and Molds produce tiny spores for the same
carpeting, persist for years. Airing out purpose that many plants produce seeds – to
VOC-containing materials will reduce but reproduce. These tiny spores can be found in
not eliminate VOC fumes. both indoor and outdoor air. When they
settle on wet surfaces, they quickly begin to
Many of the VOC-containing building grow, digesting whatever they are growing
materials have safer counterparts such as on, eventually destroying the surface. Some
paints that have low or zero VOC spores can easily be resuspended by air
emissions. A synthetic, low offgassing movement while others are “sticky” and can
sealant or shellac may help prevent VOCs move only by direct contact. Some
from escaping into the air from materials in compounds produced by molds are volatile
the classroom. However, the most prudent and can evaporate from a surface. These
route is to avoid the use of materials that substances can be the source of the strong
contain VOCs when safer options are odors commonly associated with molds.
available.
7

12. Child Proofing Our Communities Campaign
Indoor mold problems have become more reporting leaks or moisture buildup. Wet
common since the 1970s and the advent of areas should be dried or removed since
tightly sealed energy efficient buildings. The mold growth can set in after just 24 to 48
lack of exchange between indoor and outdoor hours. Existing mold must be dealt with
air allows dampness to collect on some promptly by trained experts. In all
surfaces. When spores land on these situations, the underlying cause of the
“reservoirs,” mold can grow uncontrollably.
Heating and air conditioning systems can
exacerbate mold growth by spreading spores
throughout a building and depositing them Teacher Becomes
on “fertile ground.” Buildings with elevated Anti-Mold Activist
relative humidity (greater than 45-50%)
present an optimal environment for fungal Newtown, Connecticut—In June, 1998 Joellen
growth, especially if there is an abundance of Lawson, a twenty-three year career special
absorbant material, such as carpeting, paper, education teacher, educational consultant, and
and pressed wood. These materials absorb seminar leader found herself in a hospital
moisture from the air, promoting mold emergency room after removing mold-
growth. contaminated materials from her classroom
closets at McKinley Elementary School in Fairfield.
All molds have the potential to cause health Her exposure to mold mycotoxins left her unable
effects. Molds produce allergens, irritants, to work and she was forced to accept a disability
and in some cases toxic substances called retirement. Two years later, McKinley was
mycotoxins. More than 200 mycotoxins have permanently closed due to pervasive mold
been identified. Stachybotrys chartarum contamination, but not before over fifty other
(also called Stachybotrys atra), which is often students and school staff reported health
found in indoor environments, produces a complaints such as migraines, seizures, severe
variety of potent mycotoxins, including asthma attacks, and chronic sinus infections.
satratoxin. Exposure to molds or mold
spores can trigger a wide range of reactions In response to the publication of her story in NEA
including headaches, breathing difficulties, Today magazine, Joellen began to make contacts
skin irritation, allergic reactions, with other teachers and parents of sick children
aggravation of asthma symptoms, bloody with similar horror stories about mold. Turning
noses, and eye irritation (US EPA, 2001). her tragedy into action, she testified before the
Connecticut General Assembly to promote indoor
The extent of the response and the degree of air quality (IAQ) legislative initiatives. To ensure
symptoms depends in part on the types of the passage of effective IAQ legislation next
mold present, the extent of exposure, the session, she has joined with concerned teachers,
individual’s age, and their existing parents and medical professionals to form the
sensitivities and allergies. Presently, there Canary Committee, a grassroots political action
are no national standards or guidelines that group. Despite poor health, Joellen continues to
define a “safe” level of mold in air. As a work to ensure that others won’t have to go
result, air sampling to detect the presence of through the same hell. “Networking and
mold spores is not routinely done in schools. supporting other afflicted teachers and parents of
Fungal loads also vary substantially over sick children has been the most healing and
time. empowering part of this experience,” she explains.
Ideally, preventative methods should be in
place to thwart mold growth. Custodians,
staff, and students can be responsible for
8

13. Creating Safe Learning Zones: The ABC’s of Healthy Schools
moisture accumulation must be eliminated PVC products also pose threats. A study
or the mold growth will continue. The goal published in the American Journal of Public
of any remediation should be “to remove or Health showed that children exposed to PVC
clean contaminated materials in a way that flooring in nurseries, bedrooms, and other
prevents emission of fungi and dust rooms have an 89% higher risk of bronchial
contaminated with fungi from leaving a obstruction due to the offgassing of
work area and entering an occupied or plasticizers (Jaakkola, 1999). The long-term
nonabatement area, while protecting the health risks associated with plasticizers
health of the workers performing the include immune system damage, asthma,
abatement” (NYC DOH, 2000). reproductive problems, and cancer.
Moreover, if there is a fire and PVC
The US EPA (2001), the city of New York materials burn, extremely toxic gases, such
(NYC DOH, 2001 and NYC DOH 2000), and as furans and dioxins, will be released.
the state of California (CDHS, 2001) offer
excellent resources on how to investigate While PVC is cheap and easy to install, its
and remediate an indoor mold problem. toll on the environment and human health is
harsh. Alternative materials are available
and vary depending on the intended use.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Flooring options, for example, include wood,
cork, and linoleum while alternative piping
materials include copper, clay, and
PVC, or vinyl, is a fine, white powder to
galvanized steel. Greenpeace has compiled
which petroleum-based plasticizers
an informative resource that describes the
(phthalates) and stabilizers (lead, cadmium,
alternatives to PVC building products
organo-tins) are added for flexibility,
(Greenpeace, 2002).
strength, and heat resistance. In schools,
PVC is used in piping, flooring, carpet
fibers and backing, windows and door
frames, vinyl siding, blinds, electrical
Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA)
cables, and wall coverings.
Chromated copper arsenate (CCA) is a wood
The greatest concern about the use of PVC preservative made with arsenic, chromium
materials is the pollution generated during and copper that is intended to reduce damage
manufacture and disposal (Greenpeace, from insects, mildew, and fungi. This
1997). PVC manufacturing is based on pesticide mixture, which is 22% pure arsenic,
chlorine, which releases dioxins when is forced into the wood under pressure. CCA
heated or ignited. Dioxin is one of the most does not permanently bind to the wood but
toxic substances ever tested. It causes leaches into surrounding soil, offgasses into
cancer, reproductive and developmental the air and rubs off on skin, clothing, and
effects, and can disrupt the hormonal, shoes. This “bleeding” may continue for years
immune, and neurological systems. This after the wood has been set outside (EWG,
toxin, which builds up in fatty tissue, is also 2001).
released when PVC is incinerated. The
creation and disposal of PVC is most CCA-treated wood is common in playground
harmful to exposed workers and equipment, picnic tables, gazebos, and other
surrounding communities since the outdoor equipment. The freshly treated wood
chemicals may contaminate soil, water and has a greenish tint. Unless it is cedar or
air (HB, 2000). redwood, which remain untreated, most
9

14. Child Proofing Our Communities Campaign
Getting the Poison Out of Playgrounds
Rochester, New York—Two years ago, Judith Braiman, a long-time consumer rights
activist, became concerned about her grandchildren playing on public playgrounds
contaminated with arsenic from the chromated copper arsenate (CCA) used to treat
wood. When she and other members of Rochestarians Against Misuse of Pesticides
(RAMP) began testing the playgrounds in Rochester and surrounding communities,
they found high levels of arsenic contamination. Last October, RAMP held a press
conference to announce that most Rochester playgrounds contained unsafe levels of
arsenic and to call on the State Health department to test all New York playgrounds
with CCA-treated wood. Following the press conference, several playgrounds were
closed and state-wide legislation was introduced to clean up arsenic-laced playgrounds
and ban the use of pressure-treated wood in new playgrounds. The legislation has
passed through the New York Senate and Assembly and is currently awaiting Governor
Pataki’s signature. Meanwhile, RAMP continues to test playgrounds and has found
that even where the pressure-treated wood has been resealed, Rochester playgrounds
continue to have unsafe levels of arsenic.
outdoor wood in the U.S. is treated with After health and envionmental activists
CCA (US CPSC, 2002). CCA is also used exposed the potential health risks to
indoors in new construction for any wood children and launched a campaign
that comes in contact with the ground or demanding that major home-product stores
that is placed above brick and block take the contaminated wood off their
foundations. shelves, the industry and US EPA came to
an agreement to phase out some uses of
Children absorb arsenic through the skin CCA by December 31, 2003 (US CPSC,
by touching the wood, or they ingest it by 2002). The ban will cover wood used for
putting their hands in their mouths after decks and patios, picnic tables, playground
touching the wood or eating food off a CCA- equipment, walkways and boardwalks,
treated picnic table. landscaping timbers, and fencing.
However, until that date, existing supplies
Arsenic is recognized as a human poison of CCA-treated wood can continue to be
and causes a wide range of adverse health sold and used.
effects. The immediate effects of exposure
to high levels of arsenic include seizures, The Environmental Working Group has
nausea, vomiting, abnormal heart rhythm, published a resource on arsenic-treated
and blood vessel and permanent nerve wood and children’s health called Poisoned
damage. Ingestion of a large amount can Playgrounds (EWG, 2001). The US Product
cause death. Long-term effects include Safety Commission has published a useful
cancer of the lung, bladder, and skin question and answer fact sheet on CCA-
(ATSDR, 2000). treated wood (US CPSC, 2002).
10

15. Creating Safe Learning Zones: The ABC’s of Healthy Schools
Asbestos
Asbestos Contamination Shuts
Asbestos is a very thin and lightweight Down Entire School District
mineral fiber that can remain suspended in
the air for a long time. Asbestos is most Brookfield, Connecticut—Music teacher Margaret
likely to be found in schools that were built Fitzgerald and her colleague Lynn Orzolek at the
during or before the 1970s. Used for Huckleberry Hill Elementary School (HHES) had
insulation and fire retardation, asbestos is complained for years to the school administration about
typically found in insulation around pipes, the problems with dust, dirt, mold and ventilation in their
ductwork and boilers; on surface materials classroom. Each day, in order to teach in the room,
sprayed for fireproofing or insulating; in they sprayed, sprinkled and spread carpet freshener to
ceiling tiles, floor tiles, and wall boards; cover up the odor in the room and then vacuumed it
and in caulking, adhesives, and glues. thoroughly.
Asbestos is particularly dangerous because
the nearly invisible particles can be inhaled In 2000, during renovation work at the school, several
and settle deep in the lungs. Symptoms of parents began looking into irregularities with the district’s
asbestos exposure may not show up until Asbestos Management Plan. After asbestos ceiling tiles
years later in the form of lung cancer, were removed from the school, pressure from parents
mesothelioma (cancer of the chest and resulted in testing that revealed high asbestos levels in
abdominal linings), and asbestosis (scarring schools throughout the district. One of the asbestos
of the lungs). Children are at greater risk “hot spots” was right outside Margaret and Lynn’s
from asbestos harm because they have classroom. The school board and superintendent
higher respiration rates, and asbestos fibers maintained that the schools were safe and being
remain in their bodies for longer periods of properly cleaned, rebuffing parents’ efforts to get the
time. district to move aggressively to reduce asbestos levels.
Asbestos materials do not become In May of 2002, Kathy Hulce, one of many parents
hazardous until they are “friable”-- i.e., frustrated with the asbestos policy, had dust from the
they crumble or become powdery, which music classroom tested for asbestos. When it came
results from handling or applying gentle back positive, Margaret, without the knowledge of the
pressure. Improper cutting, sanding, school administration, followed up by having a local
renovation activities, and general wear and environmental firm do micro-vac samples in the music
tear can release fibers into the air. room. These tests showed that asbestos levels in the
classroom were extraordinarily high. Shortly thereafter,
The 1986 Asbestos Hazard Emergency tests by both Margaret’s independent environmental
Response Act (AHERA) requires schools to assessor and the school district resulted in the closing
inspect for asbestos and, if found, to of HHES for further testing and cleaning.
develop a management plan to control the
asbestos. Each school district appoints an At a public forum following the school’s closure, parents
“AHERA-designated person” to implement demanded that all the district’s schools be tested—which
the management plan, which must be led to the closing of all four schools due to asbestos
available for review upon request. In contamination. Brookfield is now spending over $4
addition, the local education agency must million to clean up its schools, leaving parents wondering
inspect schools for asbestos, safely maintain what would have happened if Kathy and Margaret hadn’t
the asbestos, take action to remove or acted on their own to find out the truth about asbestos
encapsulate it, if necessary, and notify the at HHES.
public at least once per year of asbestos-
related activities at each school. The
11

16. Child Proofing Our Communities Campaign
overall effectiveness of the asbestos The major risk from radon is lung cancer.
management program largely depends Radon gas latches onto airborne particles
upon the “designated person.” This such as dust, which are then inhaled.
individual does not have to be accredited or These small particles are carried deep into
have graduated from a training program, the lungs, emitting radiation into the
but should, according to AHERA, have surrounding tissue. Radon-contaminated
adequate experience (Miller, 1995). water, when heated for showering, bathing,
washing and cooking, releases gas vapors
Regular inspections, by a local authority, that can be inhaled. Children are
are required to ensure that all asbestos- particularly sensitive to radon because they
containing materials in the schools are not breathe more quickly and receive a higher
deteriorating or crumbling. Asbestos that dose than an adult exposed at the same
is not friable is best left in place since level (US EPA, 1992).
removal increases the risk for exposure.
Where damage has occurred, repair should Radon contamination, however, is not
follow promptly. Spraying a sealant over widespread and is easily detectable and
the material or placing a barrier around it preventable. The EPA recommends but
can stop or minimize exposure until the does not mandate radon testing. In areas
asbestos is removed. prone to radon problems (this information
can be provided by state radiation health
Ideally, students and staff should not be in departments), the indoor levels of this gas
the building when removal occurs. Only should be closely monitored. Qualified
experienced workers should handle the testing contractors who meet EPA’s Radon
asbestos removal. Some states have their Measurement Proficiency (RMP) Program
own training and certification program for requirements will carry an RMP
asbestos removal contractors. The US EPA identification card. The EPA has
is a good resource for information about established a Radon Contractor Proficiency
asbestos contractors by state. If there is an Program to certify people to evaluate radon
established program in your state, only problems and help with a remediation plan
certified contractors should be working (US EPA, 1995).
with asbestos on school property.
Your state radon office has a list of these
contractors and may have information on
Radon available financial resources to defray
expenses. Local school districts may also
Radon is a gas that is naturally present at provide information on any radon issues
low levels outdoors but may reach harmful they have confronted.
concentrations in tightly sealed buildings or
near uranium mining activities. Invisible Prior to school construction, assess whether
and odorless, radon forms when uranium radon might become a problem and take
decays in soil or rock. Areas of the country preventive steps to avoid sky-high
that lie above undisturbed uranium beds are correction costs. Soil at the proposed site
more prone to higher background levels of should be tested for radium and uranium.
radon. Radon becomes problematic for Radon gas can be prevented from entering
school children and staff when it seeps into a building foundation by installing a series
the school’s water supply or through cracks in of pipes running through a concrete slab
the foundation, floors, walls and other foundation. The soil gases will collect in
openings near or below ground level and
accumulates inside schoolrooms.
12

17. Creating Safe Learning Zones: The ABC’s of Healthy Schools
the area of low pressure within the pipes should be inspected to assess the likelihood
and a fan, placed beneath the slab, will for lead exposure. Air and dust should be
draw the gases away from the foundation tested regularly and, if necessary, the lead
(Miller, 1995). materials should be removed and replaced.
The US EPA maintains radon maps Ideally, children should not be in a lead-
showing the risk for radon contamination contaminated building during any
at the county level. This agency also remediation, renovation, or construction
maintains a list of state radiation health activities. Some paint removal techniques,
departments (US EPA, 1992). such as sanding and scraping, grind the
lead to a fine dust and create a dangerous
increase in air lead levels. Puncturing or
Lead tearing out walls and opening and closing
painted windows can produce inhalable
lead dust. Any maintenance work in areas
One of the environmental health success
containing lead-based paint should be
stories of this century has been the removal
scheduled when school is not in session,
of lead from gasoline and paint, causing
and the areas should be isolated to prevent
blood lead levels to decline by 94% between
the spread of lead dust.
1976 and 1997 (CDC, 1997).
Taking samples from every faucet and
Lead, however, remains a concern in school
fountain can reveal the presence and extent
buildings, especially those dating to the
of drinking water contamination. Lead
1970s and earlier. The sources of lead
may leach into drinking water from
include plumbing, chipped and peeling
corroding pipes, solder used to connect the
lead-based interior paint, contaminated soil
pipes together, or lead-lined water cooler
from exterior paint or vehicle exhaust
tanks. As recently as 1988, lead solder was
fumes, and dust that is generated when
used to bond copper plumbing (Miller,
painted surfaces containing lead rub
1995). If lead exceeds safe levels, the
together, such as windows.
dangerous plumbing should be removed
and replaced with more stable materials,
If ingested or inhaled, lead can be carried
such as copper or galvanized steel and lead-
by the bloodstream to organs and tissues
free solder.
throughout the body. In some instances,
such as lead in gasoline, lead can be
absorbed through the skin. Children are
Carbon Monoxide and Carbon
especially vulnerable to lead, which can
affect the brain and nervous system, lower Dioxide
IQ levels, delay physical development,
shorten attention spans and increase
behavioral problems (US EPA, 1995). Some Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colorless and
effects on the central nervous system may odorless gas that forms when fuel, such as
be permanent. gas, oil or kerosene, is burned.
Malfunctioning furnaces, boilers, cooking
equipment, and vehicle exhaust can spew
Due to lead’s widespread notoriety, lead
harmful levels of CO into the air. When a
has been banned in paint and its use in
space is poorly ventilated, CO gas
building materials has fallen sharply. If
accumulates and has varying health
lead is present in a building, the building
consequences. Breathing carbon monoxide
13

18. Child Proofing Our Communities Campaign
interferes with the blood’s ability to carry can contain plant and animal materials,
oxygen to the body’s organs and can cause a such as cotton, wool, feathers, and animal
range of symptoms depending on how much hairs, from materials used in the home;
CO is present, how long it has been there, stuffing from mattresses, pillows, and
and the overall health and age of the person upholstered furniture; human skin scales,
exposed. Low levels of CO gas can result in animal dander, insect parts, mold,
dizziness, headache, weakness, fatigue, bacteria, viruses and pollen; and
nausea and vomiting, while high doses can contaminants from tobacco smoke,
bring on a coma and heart and lung failure cosmetic powders, and cleaning products
(NSC, 1999). (OSUE, 1996). Inhaling these substances
can cause allergic reactions in some
Carbon monoxide poisoning usually can be children.
avoided with the proper care and use of fuel-
burning equipment and adequate indoor/ Dust can also contain a wide range of toxic
outdoor air exchange. Entrance ways and substances. Researchers have identified
vents placed away from traffic areas can some 30 different chemicals in dust
prevent vehicle exhaust from entering the samples, including many known to cause
school (NSC, 1999). Carbon monoxide cancer in people or animals (Roberts,
detectors that meet the Underwriters 1999). Dust can include cadmium, lead,
Laboratories or similar standards are not a and other heavy metals, as well as
substitute for preventive measures and pesticides, polycyclic aromatic
should only be used as a secondary line of hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated
defense. Though much improved in recent biphenyls (PCBs), phthalates and other
years, these devices are not perfect. They persistent organic pollutants. If truckloads
are not sensitive to low levels of CO and false of dust with the same concentration of
alarms can be a problem (Donnay, 2000). toxic chemicals that can be found in most
carpets were deposited outside our homes,
The burning of heating fuels can also these areas would be considered hazardous
produce carbon dioxide (CO2), another waste dumps (Ott, 1998; Roberts, 1999).
odorless gas. When the indoor/outdoor air
exchange is stagnant, carbon dioxide levels
rise. Poor air exchange in a room or building
can also lead to CO2 buildup from the
respiration of people using the space. Above
a certain threshold, mental clarity begins to
suffer. A continuous, plentiful supply of
fresh outdoor air prevents carbon dioxide
buildup and supports an environment
conducive to instruction and learning.
Dust
Common dust is often thought of as little
more than a nuisance, unsightly perhaps,
but hardly a health hazard. Dust,
however, is not merely the innocuous dirt
that kids like writing their names in. Dust
14

19. Chapter IV
BUILDING MATERIALS: FROM HAZARDOUS
TO HEALTHIER CHOICES
Healthier building materials are available. Area rugs offer very little advantage over
However, it often requires some work to wall-to-wall carpeting. All carpeting acts
find out about the best alternatives to like a magnet to collect and hold mold
commonly-used toxic products. This spores, dust, and other contaminants from
chapter reviews some of the materials that the air. Area rugs can also be a significant
can be used for large surface areas in saftey hazard. Smaller, light-weight rugs
schools – floors, walls, and furnishings. easily slide, presenting a significant
There are several good resources, including tripping, slipping, and falling hazard.
the book Prescriptions for a Healthy (FCDBH, 2001). Larger area rugs may also
Household (Baker-Laporte, 2001) and the roll or slide. Tape is often used to secure
Collaborative for High Performance area rugs to the floor, but doing this makes
Schools’ (CHPS) Best Practices Manual it difficult to clean under the rug and to
(CHPS, 2001), which we have relied on for clean the rug itself.
our discussion of healthier construction
materials. Additional resources are Carpeting and carpet installation material
mentioned at the end of several sections. can contain up to 120 chemicals, many of
them toxic (Duehring, 1996). New carpets
When weighing options for building may emit fumes, some with distinct odors
materials, estimates need to include the from volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
cost of maintaining the material such as 4-PC (4-phenylcylohexene), toluene,
throughout its life as well as the upfront benzene and the chemicals in the fungicidal
costs. What needs to be done with the and stain-proofing treatments applied to
material to keep it in top shape? How some carpets. Typically, the VOC levels
frequently? What supplies are needed? decrease substantially several months after
These factors must be taken into account installation, but they may persist for a year
for an accurate estimate of the true cost of a or longer. The offgassing chemicals in new
product. carpeting may trigger ear, nose and throat
irritation, headache, nausea, fatigue,
Flooring rashes, respiratory problems, asthma and
multiple chemical sensitivity (Miller, 1995).
Regular carpet maintenance also requires
Carpeting cleaners and shampoos that often contain
Wall-to-wall carpeting is a popular choice toxic solvents.
for flooring, but it is not the healthiest.
School carpets are usually tufted nylon In response to concerns about the health
attached to a backing with latex (Miller, effects attributed to carpeting, the Carpet
1995). The installation requires glues, and Rug Institute, which represents 95% of
synthetic fiber backing and pads, all of the industry, launched the Green Tag
which can introduce pollutants into the Program in 1992. The label on the rug
environment. Even after installation and claims that after measuring the levels of
airing out, carpeting can still pose problems certain substances, such as 4-PC and total
by becoming a reservoir for dust, mites, VOCs, the carpet has met indoor air quality
mold, pesticides, and chemicals tracked in testing criteria. The Green Tag label,
on shoes. however, does not mean that the carpet is
safe since the carpet has not been tested for
15

20. Child Proofing Our Communities Campaign
all chemicals. Moreover, industry has not Hard-surface flooring
sought to obtain independent safety Concrete, wood, terrazzo, and ceramic tiles
standards for these chemicals (Baker- are examples of hard flooring offering
Laporte, 2001). several opportunities for safer school
construction. While the installation process
There may be some locations where is not hazard-free, these floors emit far
carpeting may be appropriate, such as fewer toxins once they are laid down, and
libraries and music rooms. If a carpet must they last for many years. Concrete may
be installed, there are several ways to seem dull, but pigments can added for
reduce the toxins entering the school. color, and brick or cobblestone patterns can
Carpets should be chosen that have not had be used to give the concrete a different
stain-resistant, fire-retardant or pesticide texture. Concrete holds up very well in
treatments. Untreated, natural fiber high traffic areas such as hallways,
carpets such as wool or cotton are the best cafeterias and foyers. Concrete can be
choices (Duehring, 1996). finished with a sealant and wax, which
require periodic reapplication.
Carpet backings are notorious for causing
adverse health effects. To minimize the Solid wood floors are usually reserved for
potential problems, avoid backings gymnasiums or special areas. This
containing polyvinyl chloride (PVC), material costs more upfront, but its natural
styrene, butadiene and rubber. Jute, a durability reduces the need for preservative
natural fiber, provides a naturally durable chemical treatments and reinstallations.
surface that does not require toxic The lifespan of a wood floor is expected to
treatments to endure heavy traffic be at least 38 years (CHPS, 2001). If the
(Duehring, 1996). costs are prohibitive, consider wood floors
for areas where students spend a majority
Carpet installation is least problematic at of their time, such as the classrooms.
the beginning of the summer, when
students and staff are away and won’t be A material with similar benefits and
returning for several months. Once the appearance to wood is bamboo. A type of
carpet has been laid down, the building grass, bamboo creates a surface that is
needs to be well ventilated with fans to more durable than hardwood--12% harder
draw the fumes outside. than rock maple.
Regular cleaning of carpeting is important Wood and bamboo are nailed or glued to a
for maintaining clean air. The carpet fibers subsurface and then sealed for protection.
act as a sink, trapping pollutant particles. Nailing is preferable since most adhesives
However, data from the Carpet and Rug contain harmful solvents. If adhesives are
Institute indicates that it takes four passes used, solvent-free or 100% silicone
with a vacuum to remove “a satisfactory adhesives are better (Baker-Laporte, 2001).
quantity of soil” from the surface of the rug Selecting a safe topcoat sealer is especially
(CRI, 2002). The rest stays and important because porous materials such as
accumulates in the carpeting. Few carpeting or fabric-covered wallboards will
custodians are aware that they need to pass absorb toxic vapors from freshly sealed
the vacuum over carpeting four times to do floors. A clear water-based sealer with no
a thorough cleaning, and fewer still would
have the time to do it
16

21. Creating Safe Learning Zones: The ABC’s of Healthy Schools
or low-VOC emissions is a good choice. Resilient/composition floor coverings
Natural sealers, such as those with linseed
Composition flooring includes vinyl, the most
oil, are the least toxic, though linseed has a
popular material, and synthetic rubber, as
strong odor during and shortly after the
well as healthier materials, such as cork and
application.
linoleum. Composition flooring comes in
rolled sheets and tiles and may be quite soft
Ceramic tiles are made from combinations of
due to added plasticizers, such as phthalates
different earth materials, such as shale, clay,
in PVC, which offgas readily.
and gypsum, which are fired into a hard,
non-reactive surface. Ceramic tile is
Steer clear of vinyl and synthetic rubber
naturally resistant to moisture buildup and
sheet materials for any cushioned floor
can prevent mold and mildew problems. The
covering. These surfaces can emit chemical
tile may be glazed or unglazed, but the glaze
fumes long after installation (See section on
holds up better under heavy foot traffic and
PVC in Chapter III). Airing out the vinyl
does not require a sealer. Imported ceramic
composition tile (VCT) in a warehouse to
tiles, however, may contain lead or
allow the fumes to dissipate before
radioactive metals in the glaze (CHPS, 2001).
installation would be one way to address the
The tiles are laid in a mortar bed that
problem. This, however, would be a time-
secures them to the floor after drying. Grout
consuming activity since VCTs are packaged
is a porous mixture that runs between the
in stacks; the tiles would have to be
individual tiles and should be sealed for
individually laid out prior to arriving at the
resistance to water and staining.
construction site.
All of these installation materials--mortars,
Cork is a viable alternative to vinyl that
grouts and grout sealers--can be a source of
provides some cushioning underfoot. This
toxic chemicals. Specify water-based/acrylic
material, harvested from trees, is pressed
and low-VOC mortars and sealers. The
into tiles that may be finished and stained
grout should be free of harmful additives,
like wood surfaces. Cork floor tiles are mold
such as fungicides.
resistant, thermal insulators and sound
absorbent. A water-based adhesive can
Terrazzo is a polished surface made of rock
secure the tiles to the subfloor, and a linseed-
chips, such as granite or marble, which are
based sealer will strengthen the cork and
incorporated into a cement or epoxy mixture.
provide water resistance. Once they are
For a long-lasting surface for high-traffic
sealed, cork tiles require vacuuming or damp
areas, cement-based terrazzo is an excellent
mopping for maintenance.
choice. The epoxy terrazzo, however, should
be avoided since it contains several toxic
Linoleum, made from flaxseed oil, wood
chemicals. Terrazzo should be coated with a
powder and jute, contains no petrochemicals
water-based sealer (CHPS, 2001).
or plasticizers. Available in sheet or tile
form, linoleum is naturally antimicrobial and
The California High Performance Schools’
antistatic and strengthens with age. The
Best Practices Manual, Volume II provides a
average lifespan of a properly installed, well-
good overview of various flooring materials
maintained linoleum floor is 30-40 years.
(CPHS, 2001).
Linoleum requires regular upkeep, including
vacuuming and wet mopping, but not as
much as vinyl composition tile (Wilson, 1999).
While linoleum does have a characteristic
odor, this can be masked with a water-based
sealer.
17

22. Child Proofing Our Communities Campaign
Paints/Surface Coverings drawer fronts, and furniture tops. Plywood
(sealers, caulking) used to be the primary choice for interior
wood subflooring, walls and roofing, but
These materials are divided into solvent most builders today are using MDF and
(oil) or latex (water) based. Latex products particleboard due to lower costs. These
are considered less hazardous only because materials, however, pose a greater risk
they contain smaller amounts of harsh than plywood. MDF and particleboard are
ingredients. Petroleum-based (oil/alkyl) made from very small pieces of wood,
paints can contain up to 60% VOCs while requiring more glue to form a solid sheet.
water-based paints will have up to 10%
VOCs (Bower, 1993). Water-based paints, These formaldehyde-containing wood
however, often contain biocides (essentially products are made with one of two types of
pesticides) added as preservatives to ward glue: a mixture of formaldehyde with urea
off mold and mildew. Low-biocide (95% free or a mixture of formaldehyde with phenol.
of preservatives and fungicides) and VOC- The urea formulation releases formalde-
free paints are available. hyde when exposed to heat and humidity
and thus generally releases substantially
These additives, including biocides, may more formaldehyde than the phenol mix-
cause adverse health effects. It can be ture, which forms a stronger bond with the
difficult to uncover the identity of these formaldehyde (EWG, 1999). Most of the
ingredients because information is often particleboard, plywood, and fiberboard sold
considered proprietary. Green Seal, an in the U.S. use a glue mixture of formalde-
independent, nonprofit, standard-setting hyde and urea (CEH, 2002).
organization has evaluated coatings for
VOC emissions, heavy metals and 21 toxic The air in portable classrooms, which have
compounds and identified healthier options formaldehyde-containing wood in the
(Green Seal, 1993). Oil-based products flooring, wall paneling and ceiling, is prone
derived from natural plant oils, such as to contain high levels of formaldehyde.
linseed, are generally better and usually These tight structures usually have few
free of other harmful additives (Baker- windows and poor ventilation systems to
Laporte, 2001). Be aware that some dissipate the offgassing fumes (Ross, 1999).
products may be less durable, requiring See the discussion of portable classrooms in
more coats or frequent applications, which Chapter VI.
can undermine “environmentally friendly”
claims. Oil-based paints have generally There are healthier alternatives to using
been regarded as longer lasting, but latex formaldehyde–containing wood products.
paints today often have comparable Formaldehyde-free particle and fiberboard
durability. is available, although it is more expensive
(EWG, 1999). One alternative product is
Medex and Medite II made by SierraPine.
Interior Wood This product uses a polyurea resin matrix
adhesive rather than urea or phenol
Particleboard, plywood, and medium density formaldehyde. According to the
fiberboard (MDF), are formed by pressing manufacturer, “There is almost no
small pieces or sheets of wood together with formaldehyde out-gassing…” and the
a formaldehyde-based glue. MDF and formaldehyde that is in the product is
particleboard are used for flooring, roofing, limited to natural formaldehydes that are
walls, cabinetry casing, shelving and doors, contained in the wood prior to manufacture
(EBN, 1992).
18

23. Creating Safe Learning Zones: The ABC’s of Healthy Schools
Other alternatives include wheat straw Building an Energy Efficient and
board and salvaged wood. Wheat straw Healthy School
particleboards are made using wheat fibers
in place of wood fibers. One product, made Somerville, Massachusetts—When the Somerville school
by Natural Fiber Boards, mixes chopped district began planning for a citywide early education
wheat straw with a non-formaldehyde center, Mayor Dorothy Kelly-Gay challenged the city’s
(MDI) resin and presses the mixture into project manager, Mike Foley and HMFM architect Doug
panels (EBN, 1995). A Green Seal report Sacra to design an energy efficient school that would
on wallboard, fiberboard, and flooring reduce costs, improve learning conditions, and enhance
evaluates this and other alternatives to the health of children and staff. The city married this
formaldehyde–containing wood products project with a renovation of a public park in a dense urban
(Green Seal, 1996). neighborhood.
If a board with formaldehyde must be used, Under a state mandate to replace all recreational space
it should be coated with at least 3 coats of encroached upon by the building, the city bought 12 lots
sealant to reduce offgassing. Some adjacent to the site. Asbestos was abated, houses were
hospitals and libraries have used demolished, and PCB-contaminated soil was removed.
formaldehyde–free particleboard, a Although lead levels in the existing topsoil were under
precaution that makes obvious good sense the allowable levels set by the Department of
for schools as well (EWG, 1999). Environmental Protection, the soil was replaced as part
of the mayor’s “best environment for our children” position.
Exterior Wood The city renovated the park to provide soccer fields, a
basketball court, community gardens, and playgrounds
The most common wood preservative used without arsenic or chromium wood preservatives.
in the U.S. is chromated copper arsenate
(CCA). As discussed in Chapter III, CCA- The designers included a number of features to ensure
treated wood is found everywhere wood is good indoor air quality. Continuous under-slab insulation
used outdoors: playgrounds, picnic tables, and a thermally improved exterior envelope will reduce
fences, decks, and foundations. Arsenic opportunities for condensation, which leads to mold
leaches out of the CCA-treated wood where growth. A continuous air barrier is provided throughout
it can be absorbed or ingested by children. the building’s shell that eliminates uncontrolled air
leakage. Fiberglass acoustic ceiling tiles will prevent mold
Healthier options to CCA-treated wood growth, as well as improve the sound absorption by 80%.
exist. The most common alternative is Materials with minimal offgassing, including low-VOC
alkaline copper quat (ACQ) which is a paints and adhesives, were used.
mixture of copper and didecyl dimethyl
ammonium chloride (EWG, 2001). Other To reduce energy and maintenance costs, the design team
options include copper boron azole (CBA) modeled many energy conservation measures to create
and copper citrate (CC). Research studies a truly high performance facility. These improvements
indicate that the toxicity of ACQ is are projected to reduce the energy use by 35% compared
relatively low compared to CCA (Solo- to a facility that just meets code. The building will save
Gabrielle, 2000), though recent tests the city $53,000 per year in energy costs and has already
indicate that copper does leach out of ACQ, garnered utility rebates over $100,000. It will also reduce
as well as CBA and CC, at much higher greenhouse gas production by 278 tons annually. In
levels than from CCA. This presents a addition, a solar-panelled roof, funded through a grant
problem because copper is considered to be from the Massachusetts Technology Collaborative, will
generate clean electricity.
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24. Child Proofing Our Communities Campaign
a “potent aquatic biocide” that is harmful Window frames also play a role in energy
to marine life. Despite these findings, efficiency and are available in wood/wood-
researchers feel that the risks are much clad, metal, composite, vinyl, and fiberglass.
greater for CCA, especially where The section on PVC in Chapter III explains
humans are concerned (Ban CCA, 2002). why vinyl should be avoided. While
fiberglass frames filled with insulation offer
If your school grounds have CCA-treated the best thermal performance, metal frames
wood, it should be removed, along with are superior when health concerns are
any contaminated soil. As a last resort, in weighed.
case removal will be delayed or disputed,
a sealer should be applied to the wood at Metal frames, either steel or aluminum,
least once per year to prevent the arsenic function best with thermal breaks that
from leaching out. A sealer, however, prevent outdoor temperatures from affecting
does not guarantee a safe surface, and the indoor air. Wood frames are an option,
sanding and scraping the wood to prepare though they are sometimes treated with
it for the sealant can release high doses of chemicals to resist moisture and rot.
the preservative into the surrounding
area (US CPSC, 2002). For more resources on windows, the Efficient
Windows Collaborative offers brief
explanations of the varieties of glass, frames
Windows and other technologies (EWC, 2002).
Windows affect more than the thermal
and lighting conditions in a school; they
also play an important role in the health
of teachers and students in the
classrooms.
Depending upon the placement of the
windows and the materials that go into
them, heat gain or loss and glare can be
minimized. High-quality, triple-glazed
windows are recommended for thermal
and moisture control and to promote
energy efficiency and reduce heating and
cooling costs. “Low-e” (low emissivity)
glazing is a metallic coating applied to
glass that reduces the transmission of
heat between indoors and outdoors, while
allowing high or low amounts of solar
light to get through. Windows that open
and close allow greater ventilation and
can reduce HVAC costs.
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25. Chapter V
THE INDOOR ENVIRONMENT
Heating, Ventilation and Air
Conditioning (HVAC)
Ventilation Problems Plague
The HVAC system has a major impact on New Schools Too
indoor air quality. The HVAC system can
transport pollutants throughout a school Girard, Ohio—The large, new Girard Intermediate
building, and it can exacerbate a problem School has been plagued with fungi and mold
by distributing contamination from one since it opened in the fall of 2000—the result of
part of the school to another. When dirty or problems with the school’s construction. (For
poorly designed, it can introduce additional example, the ductwork and insulation were
pollutants into the school environment. exposed to moisture before being installed.) Chris
Notareschi’s fifth grade science students became
The HVAC system helps the air to circulate so sick that she persuaded her colleagues, whose
between classrooms, hallways and offices students were similarly affected, to teach their
and to exchange with outside air through classes outside to avoid the stench, but the
windows, vents, ductwork and fans. superintendent quickly forced them back indoors.
Separately-vented fans should be designed
to remove air from specific areas, such as After significant pressure from the newly formed
custodians’ closets, locker rooms, and Girard Concerned Parent’s Group, extensive
science labs, and send it outside. The air testing was done in the building, revealing that
handling system relies on fans and there were high levels of fungi in the carpeting,
ductwork to continuously circulate indoor airborne particulates, VOCs, pathogenic bacteria,
air and replace a given volume of it with and high levels of carbon dioxide. The group
filtered and conditioned outdoor air. pushed for removing the carpet and replacing it
with tile and replacing the fiberglass-insulated
The HVAC system also regulates ductwork, which the Girard Board of Health has
temperature and humidity levels. The said should not be used in hospitals and schools.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating The school may finally reopen in September 2002
and Air Conditioning Engineers has after 16 months of renovation work that cost a
created standards for acceptable ranges of half million dollars.
temperature and humidity levels within a
building depending upon the season The group is also working on removing the Girard
(AHSRAE, 1992). In addition to bringing Board of Education, which withheld information
discomfort, excessive humidity encourages on the problems at the school for six months,
the growth of mold and mildew, while very including information on student illnesses. After
low humidity levels help disperse mold the group collected over 2,000 signatures
spores (seed-like bodies that attach to supporting the board’s removal, a state court
surfaces and mature into mold). Very low ordered that the board be dismissed. The case
humidity also causes eye, nose, and throat has gone to the Ohio Supreme Court, which will
irritation. decide whether the lower court has the authority
to remove the board.
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26. Child Proofing Our Communities Campaign
Natural ventilation, i.e. air moving through
open windows and doors, is necessary for
healthy indoor air. The HVAC system and Fresh Air for Vermont Students
natural ventilation can lessen the impact of Newport, Vermont—Jessica Trahan was a freshman
indoor pollutants by drawing contaminants at North Country Union High School (NCUHS) when
outside and diluting indoor concentrations she lost consciousness and was hospitalized. When
with adequate doses of outdoor air. Modern Jessica was unable to return to school, her mom
schools that are tightly sealed to save on Cindy started looking into the school’s indoor air
heating and cooling costs thwart natural quality and how it had affected her daughter’s
airflow through open windows and doors. health. She began to attend school board meetings
Natural ventilation, however, may only be and campaigned for and won a seat on the board.
available on a limited basis in some climates, After two teachers instituted separate “sick building
which means a greater reliance on the syndrome” lawsuits against the school, the
HVAC system. community approved a bond issue to improve
ventilation and the board moved ahead with an
The placement of vents, fans, and windows ambitious renovation project.
should be designed to collect the cleanest air
possible. For example, a fan that pulls in In addition to replacing room heating units with new
outdoor air should not be situated near a fresh air intake ventilators, a complete air exhaust
parking lot where diesel buses and cars idle duct system was installed; science labs were gutted
or near garbage dumpsters, a vent that and rebuilt with fume hoods and a ducted chemical
releases contaminated air, or other supply closet; ventilation was upgraded in auto,
contamination sources. building trades, and metallurgy classrooms; and a
wood chip boiler replaced the oil burning boiler
The air circulating in a school should be a system.
mixture of outdoor air and air that is
recirculated, filtered, and heated or cooled. Mary Scarpa, the school district’s business
The HVAC system must be capable of manager, not only oversaw the successful
moving enough air with enough velocity to implementation of the project but took additional
reach all interior spaces to prevent steps to protect students’ health by reducing diesel
significant temperature differences between fumes in the building. Buses were moved off-site,
floor and ceiling. During the design process, no longer permitted to warm up next to the school
insulation between walls and under flooring or to idle while waiting for or discharging students.
should be considered to help regulate All vendor deliveries of heating fuel, propane and
temperatures so that actual comfort levels diesel fuel have to be made prior to the start of
and thermostat readings match. Large school or after school hours. Mary’s diesel idling
windows, while important for ventilation, policy was incorporated into the Vermont Healthy
cause hot or cold spots to develop that can be Schools Act of 2000 (VPIRG, 2000).
corrected by drawing blinds or curtains (US
EPA, 1995). Jessica, the student who was made so ill by the
school’s poor air quality, eventually returned to
Good quality, properly installed HVAC school and graduated in the top 10 of her class,
systems demand higher prices initially. earning a fully paid scholarship to a local state
Over their life cycle, however, savings college. And in recognition of its accomplishments,
accumulate. In addition to consuming fewer in August, 2001 NCUHS received one of 10 U.S.
natural resources, energy efficient HVAC EPA Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools Excellence
units reduce costs through prevention of Awards.
such problems as poor indoor air quality and
mold.
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