1. AaronTucker ATSGC 2366 3366 SEM1 2016
Combined
StudentID:30310648
Essay Topic
Indigenoussocietyisdiverse - bothinlanguage groupsandintraditional cultural practices.By
examiningandreflectinguponAustralianIndigenousartpracticesina varietyof contextsand
geographical locations,explainwhatthis statementmightrepresent.Youmightlike toreflectonthe
art practicesgeneratedbyjustone language group,orfrom one ‘traditional’community,for
instance,the Luritja/Arrernte communityof Hermannsburg;the Warlpiricommunityof Yuendumu;
the Luritja/Arrente communityof Papunya;the Anmatyerre/Alyawwaof Utopia,assome examples
only.Or youmay wantto lookat this‘diversity’withinthe urbanenvironment.
Introduction
What doesone focuson whenwritingaboutdiversityamongAboriginal art?Itisimportantto relate
the art back to the people wholiveonthe land,ordid live onthe land.Itis importanttorelate the
art back to kinship,whocancreate the art, andwhere. The essay will coverthe methodsand
materialsusedbythe artiststo produce theirartwork.Alsoitisimportantto distinguishbetween
the differenttypesof artthatthese people produce,orthe peoplebeforethemproduced. The essay
will identifythe connectionbetweenkinshipandart andthe diverse typesof artformsthat
Aboriginal people can anddoproduce.
Kinship
Aboriginal kinship is an integral part of The Dreaming, as are people themselves and their land (or
“country” as it is known in Aboriginal English). One’s place in the kinship system also determines
one’s rights and obligations with respect to other people, country, and artistic expression. The ability
to render a particular Dreaming is not only based on the available Dreamings in any given “country”,
but is also based on kinship rights. Kinship rights and obligations apply to land ownership, while also
regulating social relationships. These are all regarded as being derived from the Jukurrpa (the
Aboriginal word for “The Dreaming” or “The Dreamtime”). Intellectual copyright flows on from land
ownership, giving certain groups or individuals rights of representation of the particular Jukurrpa
connected with specific tracts of “country”. This can be represented in material or non-material form
– for example, as visual art, oral narrative, song or dance. To ensure the survival of specialised
knowledge, permissions to render certain subjects in their artwork originates from the Jukurrpa. The
Jukurrpa also details who one may marry, and who one should avoid marrying. It also tells of who
one can share a joke with (Nicholls). There are three levels of kinship: moiety, totems and skin
names. Moiety is a Latin word meaning ‘half’. In Moiety systems, everything, including people and the
environment, are split into two halves. Each half is a mirror of the other, and to understand the whole
universe these two halves must come together. Siblings share the same moiety and therefore are
forbidden to marry, and must support each other. Totems represent the clan, nation and family. Each
person also has a personal totem. The totems are not owned but there is an accountability for the
totem. It must be protected and passed onto the future generations. Skin names represent a person’s
bloodlines. Parents and children are named in cycles. If a mother has a name in cycle one, then her
children will be named in cycle two, and their children, cycle three. Even if the woman had only one
child, the kinship system works in a way that the child would have siblings from cycle two, and other
parents from cycle one. The kinship system ensures that children will never be alone, and will have
many parents to support them (Australians Together). It not only shows the relations from a
paternity and maternity aspect, but it also distinguishes gender, race, age and seniority. Each child
that is born is linked to a particular Jukurrpa, by a subsection, which connects them to land
ownership. Each subsection is known as a ‘skin’ name. For women, names begin with ‘N’, and for
men, names begin with ‘J’. For instance, the skin name Jakamarra, ideally can only marry a Napaljarri
woman, and their children are Napanangka or Japanangka. They will then, in turn, ideally marry a
Jupurrurla man or Nupurrurla woman. Today there are a number of false marriages. There are also

2. AaronTucker ATSGC 2366 3366 SEM1 2016
Combined
StudentID:30310648
relationships that need to be avoided, such as, a mother-in-law and son-in-law are not to be seen
together at social gatherings or in the same car together. For someone not to have a skin name was
unheard of in Aboriginal culture, so when it came to forming relationships with non-Aboriginal people,
the practice of giving them skin names emerged. Unfortunately, non-Aboriginal people saw this as an
acceptance by the people, but it was merely a way of making things easier or more comfortable when
dealing with non-Aboriginal people (Central Land Council). There are very precise rules that govern
which skins are allowed to marry and which are not. For example one can never marry a person who
is of the same skin as a parent - which would in some ways be like marrying a ‘mother’ or ‘father’
(Northern Land Council). It is a very complex system which can take a long time to fully understand.
Kinship, Art and Culture
The verycomplex systemof kinshipamongstAboriginal groupshasadistinctlinkbackto art and
culture.Yourkinshiplineagedeterminesyourcustodianshiprightstothe storiesandsongs.Butto do
so,you musthave passedthroughan initiationceremony.Kinshipgroupsalsodetermineyour
linkage tothe Dreaming.These Dreamingstoriescanbe part of storiesfromothertribal groups.How
the Dreaminginfluencesthe workof artistsismanagedbythe kinshipsystemandprovidesthe key
to custodianshipof Dreamingstories(Japingka Gallery).Unlike westernartists,Aboriginal artists
paintbasedon theirkinshipgroupsandthe custodianshipof theirstoriesandthe landtheybelong
to. Sacredsitesbelongtotwogroupsof people:the ownersandthe managers.The ownersmanage
the ceremonies,andthe managersperformthe ceremonies.The ownersandmanagersare alsoonly
allowedtopaintcertainsubjectsthatrelate tothe stories.If anyone else wastopaintthese stories,
it wouldbe a breachof ownership.Alongwiththe ownershipandrightstothe stories,comes
obligationtoensure thatthe storiesare toldandperformedcorrectly(Wroth). Kinshipstructuresare
alsoveryimportantto manyAboriginal societies.Inhisbook"PapunyaTula",GeoffreyBardon
describeshowall male Aboriginesinthe westerndesertregion,afterfull tribal initiation,owna
Dreamingandare the custodiansof itsassociatedstoriesandsongs.Each mancan paintor
otherwise discusshispersonal Dreamingashe inheritsit,oras he ispermittedbycustom.While the
ownershipof the story isstrictlydemarcatedbytribal skingroups,eachone can be part of a much
greaterstoryand mightoverlapwithotherstoriesfromothertribes.The skinsystemiscomplex,but
it isessential toaproperappreciationof the waythat custodyof dreaming storiesisestablished -
and the factors whichinfluence the workof anartist (Aboriginal ArtOnline2016).
The Diversity of Western Desert Art
Art isa central part of the life of Australianaboriginesandtakesmanyforms.Traditionally,itwas
made for purelycultural reasonsandwasonlyable tobe createdor viewedbypeople initiatedto
the properlevel of knowledge.More recently,artworkhasbeenmade specificallyforpublicviewing.
Regardlessof whetherthe art isfor private orpublicpurposes, formanyartiststheirworkremains
inspiredbythe traditional marksandsymbolsfromthe Dreamingandthe artist'scountry.
Conventionaldesignsandsymbolsare anessentialpartof the longtraditionsinAboriginal art.When
appliedtothe bodyof a persontakingpartin a ceremonyorthe surface of an object,these have the
powerto transformthe objecttoone withreligioussignificance.Dotsare one of the conventional
symbolswidelyusedandformanynon-Aboriginal people theseare whatgive Central andWestern
Desertart itsdistinctive character. Inthe late eighteenthcenturythere were between600 and 700
Aboriginal 'tribes'inAustralia.Eachhadits ownterritory,itsownsocial systemandlaws,anditsown
language.Betweenthem,theyspokebetween200 and 250 separate languages.Of these,around
150 have all butdisappearedandnowonly20 or soare still strongandin active use indailylife.
Many Aboriginesare deeplyconcernedaboutthe state of theirlanguages,butpride inculture
throughart is helpingtomaintainorrecoversome of them.Musicis a powerful partof Aboriginal

3. AaronTucker ATSGC 2366 3366 SEM1 2016
Combined
StudentID:30310648
culture andis part of everydaylife aswell asbeingavital partof sacredceremonies.Traditional
songsare of central importance intellingandmaintainingDreamingstories.Contemporary
Aboriginal culture isalsorichinmusic. There are excitingblendsof Westernandtraditional sounds
across a varietyof styles,rangingfromdidjeridumusictothe contemporarypopularsoundsof
Archie Roachor YothuYindi. (Aboriginal ArtOnline2001). Rock picturesare still veryimportantto
Aboriginal people,inmanydifferentways.Originallyeachsite belongedtoaparticulargroup which
had the rightof accessand the responsibilityforlookingafterthe paintingsorengravingsandforany
necessaryceremonies.Manyreligiousimageswere more thanmere pictures.Theyrepresentedthe
actual spiritual energyof the creativeancestorsandwhenrepaintedorretouchedinaritual context
theirsacredpowerwasreleased,ensuringthatthe seasonscame attheirpropertime,plantsand
animalswere inplentifulsupply,andchildrenwereborn. Insome areas,suchas ArnhemLandand
Central Australia,rockpaintingretainsitsreligioussignificance.The WarlpiriandPitjantjatjara
people of the desertsstillretouchtheirsacredimagesforspecificritual purposes. Inmanypartsof
Australia,however,the historyof the last200 yearshas meantthe lossof landand of traditional
religiousbeliefsandpractices.Nevertheless,the rockpaintingsandengravingsfoundinthese areas
still have greatsymbolicsignificance toAboriginalcommunities.Theyare regardedasa majorlink
withthe past,a part of Aboriginal heritage,arecordof Aboriginal history,andasource of identityto
presentgenerationsof Aboriginal people(Aboriginal ArtOnline,2000a).Aboriginal Australians
traditionallyusedartas a meansof communicationorexpressionindifferentformssuchas rock
engravings,cave paintingsanddesignscutintotrees,wooden articlessuchasboomerangsandon
theirbodies(scarification).The symbolsof theirartworkwere expressionsof theirbeliefs,
the Dreamtime andDreaming storiesorinsome caseswere recordsof specificevents.Whatever
theydrew,engravedorpaintedontosuchsurfacesas sand,earth,rock,treesor woodhad
significantmeaningstothem. The termart,broadlyinterpreted,alsoincludesstorytelling,song,
musicand dance.These forms of Aboriginal artwere oftensacredbecause of theirconnectiontothe
Dreamtime andAboriginal spiritualbeliefs,orbecause theywereaccessible onlytoinitiatedadults.
Otherstorieswere secular(non-sacred) andincludedstoriesforchildrenandthose thatrecorded
majoreventssuchas great battles,memorable huntingexpeditionsorthe arrival of Europeansand
othersintotheircountry (Aboriginal ArtOnline,2000b). The growthof contemporaryAboriginal art
isa remarkable story.While the greatest floweringof modernAboriginal artcanbe tracedfrom the
rise of the central desertartmovementatPapunya,the antecedentsof Aboriginalartexpression
usingmodernmaterialsinamixedcultural contextcanbe identifiedmuchearlier.
Apart fromthe materialsused,Aboriginal artistshave shownconsiderable innovationinthe
techniquestheyadoptforapplyingpaintandcreatingdesigns - rangingfromthe crushedendof a
stick,as usedforexample byEmilyKame Kngwarreyeinsome workstoproduce characteristiclarge
smudgeddots,tothe fine brushesusedtoproduce the delicate rarrkpatternsof ArnhemLandart.
Ochre was the most importantpaintingmaterialusedtraditionallybyAboriginal people.Itismined
fromparticularsitesandis a crumblyto hard rock heavilycolouredbyironoxide.The source
material wastradedextensivelyacrossAustraliainthe past,withsome material travelingmany
hundredsoreventhousandsof kilometresfromwhereitwasminedtowhere itwasused.It comes
ina varietyof coloursfrompale yellowtodarkreddish-brown.Paintsare made bygrindingthe
source rock to a powderand thenmixingitwithafluidtobindittogether.Traditionally,thisfluid
couldbe salivaor blood,while incontemporaryartan acrylicbinderismore commonlyused.The
rich dark redinsome of Jack Britten'spaintings comesfromthe use of kangaroobloodmixedwith
ochre powder.Traditional use of ochresincludednotonlybodyandotherpainting(suchasbark and
woodensculptures),butalsoarole inmortuary ceremonies.Forexample,inArnhemLandandthe
Kimberleyasa final stage inmortuaryritesthe bonesof a deceasedpersonmaybe paintedwith

4. AaronTucker ATSGC 2366 3366 SEM1 2016
Combined
StudentID:30310648
ochresand thenwrappedinpaperbarkandplacedina rock shelterorcave,or placedina logcoffin.
In contemporaryAboriginal art,artistsselectfromthe same broadvarietyof modernandtraditional
materialsandtechniquesasnon-indigenousartists.Traditionally,the mainpigmentsusedin
additiontoochreswere charcoal,fine white andcolouredclayandmixturesof blood,feathers,fat
and otherorganicmaterial.Inpainting, charcoal andfine white claywere traditionallymost
commonlyused.Pigmentswere alsocommonlyappliedbyfingersorhands,especiallyduring
paintingof skinforceremonies.Bodypaintingoccurredextensivelyaspartof ceremoniesincentral
and northern Australia(Aboriginal ArtOnline,2008).

5. AaronTucker ATSGC 2366 3366 SEM1 2016
Combined
StudentID:30310648
Conclusion
It isobvious fromeverythingcoveredinthisessay thatAboriginal artcoverssucha diverse range of
methodsandpractices.Fromrock art thathas stoodthe testof time for over40,000 years,to
contemporaryWesternstyle art,includingmusicanddance.The successandimportance of
Aboriginal artandthe people whoproduce the artshouldneverbe downplayed. The linktokinship
has a huge part to playin art, somuch so, thatit identifieswhocansing,dance andpaintalongwith
a numberof other art forms.

6. AaronTucker ATSGC 2366 3366 SEM1 2016
Combined
StudentID:30310648
References
Nicholls,Christine.The Conversation. Friday Essay:Land,Kinship and Ownership of
'Dreamings'. 2016. Web.
Central Land Council. Kinship and Skin Names 2016. Web.
NorthernLandCouncil. Understanding Kinship.2016.Web.
AustraliansTogether. Kinship and Skin Names. 2016. Web.
JapingkaGallery, AboriginalArtand Kinship Groups. 2014. Web.
JapingkaGallery. DesertArtComesto Yuendumu. 2016. Web.
Wroth, David.JapingkaGallery. Custodianship in AboriginalArt. 2015. Web.
Aboriginal ArtOnline. Biographiesof Yuendumu Artists. 2016. Web.
Aboriginal ArtOnline. Artand AboriginalSociety. 2016. Web.
Aboriginal ArtOnline. Australian AboriginalRockArt. 2000a. Web.
Aboriginal ArtOnline. TraditionalAboriginalArt. 2000b. Web.
Aboriginal ArtOnline. Australian AboriginesLand and Cultures.2001. Web.
Aboriginal ArtOnline. TraditionalAboriginalPainting Methods.2008.Web.