4. Similarity between different species. The eastern meadowlark ( Sturnella magna, left) and the western meadowlark ( Sturnella neglecta, right) have similar body shapes and colorations. Nevertheless, they are distinct biological species because their songs and other behaviors are different enough to prevent interbreeding should they meet in the wild. (a) Diversity within a species. As diverse as we may be in appearance, all humans belong to a single biological species ( Homo sapiens ), defined by our capacity to interbreed. (b) Figure 24.3 A, B

8. Viable fertile offspring Reduce hybrid viability Reduce hybrid fertility Hybrid breakdown Fertilization Gametic isolation GAMETIC ISOLATION REDUCED HYBRID VIABILITY REDUCED HYBRID FERTILITY HYBRID BREAKDOWN (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m)

36. *Morphology or physical structures play an important role in evolutionary relationships (i.e. Organisms that have the same types of structures must have been related in the past. This is considered Divergent Evolution) Question: Are these skulls from organisms in the same species?

37. Morphologies are deceiving! YES! They are in the same species. They are both domestic dogs . -> ->

58. 4 Continuing the comparison of bases at sites 2, 3, and 4 reveals that each of these possible trees requires a total of four base-change events (marked again by crossbars). Thus, the first four sites in this DNA sequence do not help us identify the most parsimonious tree. 5 After analyzing sites 5 and 6, we find that the first tree requires fewer evolutionary events than the other two trees (two base changes versus four). Note that in these diagrams, we assume that the common ancestor had GG at sites 5 and 6. But even if we started with an AA ancestor, the first tree still would require only two changes, while four changes would be required to make the other hypotheses work. Keep in mind that parsimony only considers the total number of events, not the particular nature of the events (how likely the particular base changes are to occur). 6 At site 7, the three trees also differ in the number of evolutionary events required to explain the DNA data. RESULTS To identify the most parsimonious tree, we total all the base-change events noted in steps 3–6 (don’t forget to include the changes for site 1, on the facing page). We conclude that the first tree is the most parsimonious of these three possible phylogenies. (But now we must complete our search by investigating the 12 other possible trees.) Two base changes Figure 25.15b I II III IV I III II IV I IV II III I II III IV I III II IV I IV II III I II III IV I III II IV I IV II III I II III IV I III II IV I IV II III GG GG AA AA GG AA GG GG AA GG AA GG GG GG GG AA GG AA GG GG GG T G T G T T T T T G G T G T T G G T T T T 10 events 9 events 8 events

68. Problems with the Miller and Urey Experiment *Miller and Urey didn't add oxygen to the apparatus (science shows that oxygen has always been present on Earth) because it would explode when the spark was produced. *The experiment produced left and right handed amino acids, however, living organisms are only composed of left handed amino acids. Chemical Evolution Video Clip

79. Creationist Model

86. Lynn Margulis (top right), of the University of Massachussetts, and Kenneth Nealson, of the University of Southern California, are shown collecting bacterial mats in a Baja California lagoon. The mats are produced by colonies of bacteria that live in environments inhospitable to most other life. A section through a mat (inset) shows layers of sediment that adhere to the sticky bacteria as the bacteria migrate upward. Some bacterial mats form rocklike structures called stromatolites, such as these in Shark Bay, Western Australia. The Shark Bay stromatolites began forming about 3,000 years ago. The inset shows a section through a fossilized stromatolite that is about 3.5 billion years old. (a) (b) Figure 26.11a, b

108. Bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, hornworts) Plants Fungi Animals Seedless vascular plants (ferns) Gymnosperms Angiosperms Amoebozoans (amoebas, slime molds) Chytrids Zygote fungi Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi Sac fungi Club fungi Choanoflagellates Sponges Cnidarians (jellies, coral) Bilaterally symmetrical animals (annelids, arthropods, molluscs, echinoderms, vertebrates) Chapter 29 Chapter 30 Chapter 28 Chapter 31 Chapter 32 Chapters 33, 34 Figure 26.21

109. Creation and Evolution: Major Beliefs Topic Evolutionists believe….. Creationists believe…. Date of the Earth The Earth is at least 4.6 billion years old. Evolutionists must have vast amounts of time in order for mutations to accumulate; otherwise the variations we see today would not have had enough time to accumulate. Creationists are divided on the age of the Earth; however, a straight forward reading of the book of Genesis indicates a young Earth. Using the generations from Adam to Jesus we deduce approximately 4,000 years have passed and from Jesus to the present another 4,000 years. Approximate age of the Earth taken from scripture is between 6,000-7,000 years old. Mutation Mutations have always existed since the first organism evolved. Mutations are believed to be the major element and contributing factor causing the enormous quantity of variations we see in organisms today. Mutations originated at the fall of man (Genesis) and have accumulated from this point, however, mutations are not considered to be the major cause of variations within organisms, rather, variations were created by God and then selected to best fit an environment. Mutations are most often negative and therefore could not have produced the organisms and variations we see today.

110. Creation and Evolution: Major Beliefs Topic Evolutionists believe….. Creationists believe…. Natural Selection A process that selects from existing traits and variations and fits organisms to their environment. Evolutionists extrapolate this observable process and belief that natural selection had the ability to guide evolving organisms through innumerable changes and alterations and to produce the organisms we see in the present. Natural selection (being a process) must act on living organisms and couldn’t have in itself functioned before organisms evolved. A process that selects from existing traits and variations and fits organisms to their environment. Creationists see natural selection as a process that was instituted by God after the fall in order to preserve variations and to fit organisms to their changing environment. Creationists view natural selection as a method of preservation rather than a method of selection. Creationists insist that natural selection explains the “survival of the fittest” but not the “arrival of the fittest”. Tree of Life All organisms are related to an ancestral organism. The tips of the branches are modern day species and the trunk represents the first organism that evolved. New evidence is continually altering major branches. All organisms are not related. Instead of a tree, Creationists envision a lawn or orchard, where the tips represent modern day species and the base represents God’s Created Kinds (barmins, Genesis). Creationists would agree that the connections of the branches in the evolutionary tree of life are not real relationships rather are only hypothesized and undocumented relationships.

111. Creation and Evolution: Major Beliefs Topic Evolutionists believe….. Creationists believe…. Species Species are finely tuned organisms to their environments that have the capabilities of reproducing with those in their same species. Evolutionists believe that new species are constantly forming due to geographic isolation, etc. Species are viewed as finely tuned to their environment through natural selection, however, not all Creationists agree with the modern view of fixed species. Creationists instead view all modern day species as descendants of a Biblical Kind, sometimes still being able to breed with others of the same Biblical Kind. Information (DNA and RNA) DNA had to accumulate over the vast eons (4.6 bya). The first organism had little information compared to modern day species with vast quantities of information. Evolutionists believe that the quantity of DNA has increased through mutational events. DNA was created by God as the instructions for each Biblical Kind. Written into the DNA are variations. Creationists do not believe that new and novel DNA can be produced through mutations and have challenged evolutionists with the problem of DNA complexity.

112. Creation and Evolution: Major Beliefs Topic Evolutionists believe….. Creationists believe…. Variation Variations are a result of mutational events. Variations were written into the DNA code by God. New variations are possible through mutational events but they are almost always harmful or not beneficial. Creationists would argue that mutations are incapable of producing all of the variations we see in the Biblical Kinds. Missing-links They are fossilized organisms that exhibit a transitional form between (usually) a more ancient species and a more modern species. Archaeopteryx is an example of a supposed missing-link between reptiles and birds. Would suggest that missing-links do not exist and are still missing. Creationists would view missing-links as an evolutionary forced relationship between two organisms that are in fact distinct species.

113. Topic Evolutionists believe….. Creationists believe…. Microevolution Small incremental changes in the frequency of alleles within a species. Creationists would agree that microevolution occurs but would credit the frequency of alleles within a species as being selected from variation that was created by God rather than solely produced by mutation. Creationists would also emphasize that microevolution fluctuates within a population. Macroevolution Evolutionists would extrapolate the small changes found in microevolution as accumulating to produce a much larger event, incorporating all of life into a large continuum. Creationists would suggest that microevolution is not possible nor has been observed and that any extrapolation by evolutionists to prove macroevolution is hypothetical rather than actual. Creationists believe that macroevolution is not possible because God set natural limitations between the Biblical Kinds.

114. Topic Evolutionists believe….. Creationists believe…. Darwin The first scientist that united various preconceived ideas to make a whole realm of thought, which later came to be known as evolution. Some scientist credit Darwin with allowing them to become “intellectually fulfilled atheists”, but not all evolutionists agrees with this view. Creationists do not generally vilify Darwin but disagree with his final conclusion; that all life evolved in a continuum without the need of an intelligent designer. Creationists view Darwin as a scientist who was a product of his time, making misguided extrapolations based on somewhat good reasoning but spoiling that good reasoning with unsubstantiated hypothetical reasoning. Creationists often claim that Darwin made conclusions based on faith rather than true science. Human Evolution Evolutionists include humans in the overarching evolutionary scenario, claiming that humans descended from ape-like organisms. Creationists reject human evolution entirely, based on the belief that humans were created in the image of God (Genesis). Creationists believe that humans were created (Adam and Eve) fully formed with the ability to communicate with each other and with God from the beginning and reject any step-by-step process of human evolution.