1. Exploring Art:A Global,Thematic Approach
Chapter 8
Deities and Places of Worship

2. • The supernatural realm lies beyond our
senses, yet people have attempted to
create symbols and pictures that express
their understanding of divinity.
• Art is one of many ways humans try to
connect to the transcendent.

3. Animism
Belief in innumerable spiritual beings
concerned with human affairs and capable of
helping or harming human interests.
While none of the major world religions are
animistic, most other religions—e.g. those of
tribal peoples—are.

4. Venus of Willendorf. Stone, 43/8"
high. Austria, c. 25,000–20,000
Prehistoric peoples may have
believed that this small egg-
shaped stone contained the
spiritual force of procreation…aid
to ancient fertility rituals.

5. Polytheism
• Belief in many gods with distinct and
sometimes several functions. Likely the first
polytheistic gods, the Earth Mother is the
original deity in almost all areas of the
globe—the giver of life and fertility and
carrier of death.

6. Snake Goddess, from
Knossos.
c 1700-1550 BCE.
Faience, 11”
Open bodice and
prominent breasts tie
this figure to early
fertility goddesses.
Snakes may represent
male sexuality and/or
regenerative powers
connected to the
snake’s shedding of
its skin.

7. Zeus, Greece, 460-450 BCE, Bronze, 6’10”
Zeus, chief among the Greek gods, is
usually shown as a mature bearded
male with an ideal, godlike physique.
His right hand probably once held a
thunderbolt, an attribute of Zeus, the
god of sky and storms. However, he
may have held a trident, which is an
attribute of Poseidon, the god of the
sea. The over-life-size figure appears
monumental, muscular, and ideally
proportioned. It conveys a sense of
action and energy and, at the same
time, poise and dignity. Fully
extended, the figure’s mighty body is
balanced between the backward
movement of his arm and its
anticipated forward movement as he
hurls a thunderbolt or trident.

8. Greek civilizations est. city-states
• Greek gods appear in human
form—entirely idealized and
flawless—conforming to
Greek standard of beauty
• Greeks considered
themselves superior to other
religions that worshipped
animals or mountains

9. Ancient Egyptian deities
• Mostly personifications of natural forces,
such as the rising sun, ripening crops, Nile
river. These divine beings required worship
and sacrifice from humans. Most were
represented as animals or animal-human
combinations.

10. The Goddess Hathor and the Overseer of Sealers, Psamtik.
Saqqara, Egypt, 6th
c. BCE 33 11x43”
• This statue places Psammetik under
the protection of Hathor the cow
goddess of joy and life.
• He wears a big wig falling behind his
ears. The seal hanging from his breast
is the insignia of his profession. His kilt
with a starched frontal section, is
inscribed with his names and titles.
• On the top of Hathor's head is the
characteristic crown composed of the
sun disk and two feathers (divinty) and
a uraeus (sacred cobra representation
of supreme power) between her two
horns.

11. A hawk representing Horus, the Sky God, is on the coffin case of Tutankhamen

12. Pantheism
• Belief that a divine spirit pervades all things
in the universe.
• Although, the Hindu religion appears to
have many gods, it is pantheism, rather
than polytheism. Because, their “gods” are
all manifestations, or “avatars” of a divine
universal spirit…Brahman the Unbounded.
• Brahman is one, pure being, pure
intelligence, and pure delight…therefore
unknowable.

13. Hinduism
• All gods are
manifestations
(avatars) of Brahman
• All natural things,
human and spiritual
beings reflect
Brahman (The
Unbounded—one,
pure being, pure
intelligence, pure
delight and therefore
unknowable)
• Shiva is the primary
avatar—source of:
• good and evil,
• male and female
• Unity in which all
opposites meet
• Destroyer of life
• Recreatore of life
• Lord of the Dance

14. Shiva (an avatar) as Nataraja,
Lord of the Dance, c.1000 bronze
• Cobra heads form end of his hair
• Stands in perfect balance
• Embodiment of cosmic energy, yet balanced
pose contains the concept of eternal stillness
• Multiple arms—power
• Third eye—divine wisdom
• Far right hand—hourglass-shaped drum—
creation and passing of time
• Second right hand—coiled snake—
regeneration
• Second right hand—mudra—symbol of
protection
• Far left hand—flame—destruction
• Other left hand—points to raised foot—
release from earth
• Right foot—crushes personification of
ignorance
• Circle of fire—transformation of the
universe, and its destruction

15. Buddhism
• Rooted from Hinduism
• Prince Siddhartha Gautama fled court life
to become a homeless holy man.
• Buddhists, like Hindus, believe in
reincarnation, most often into lives of
suffering, based on the deeds of their past
lives

16. Stupa (one symbol of Sakyamuni) a sign of his
death and attainment of nirvana.
• Reincarnation
• Nirvana—
transformation of
their
consciousness from
the material world
to the eternal
realm
• Stupa—mound tomb—
symbol of
Sakyamuni
• Mound form—
represents the
cosmos, swelling
place of the
ancient gods,
sacred womb of the
universe
Great Stupa, Sanchi, India, 3rd
c. BCE

17. Seated Buddha, Sarnath, Uttar
Pradesh, India, late 5th
c. sandstone,
63”
Emphasis on serenity
Lotus position
Wheel of the Law overhead
Tree of Enlightenment—foliage
Preaching gesture--hands
Buddha…later sects emphasized a more personal Buddha

18. The Water and Moon Guanyin
Bodhisattva. Painted wood, 7'11“
high. China, Song Dynasty, c.
1100. The Nelson-Atkins
Museum of Art, Kansas City.
Purchase: Nelson Trust.
Bodhisattva…living beings who have attained
Buddhahood but have chosen to remain on earth to
help others.

19. Seated Buddha Akshobhya (?), the Imperturbable Buddha of
the East, 9th–10th century Tibet
• The earth-touching gesture is
most frequently associated with
Shakyamuni, the Historic
Buddha. It alludes to his victory
over the evil demon Mara, who
sought to disturb his
meditation, and therefore his
enlightenment. The position of
the Buddha's other hand, with
his thumb and middle finger
pressed together is not
associated with the Historic
Buddha.

20. Seated Buddha, Tang dynasty (618–907), early 8th century China
• This seated figure performs
a graceful variation of the
dharmachakra mudra or
hand gesture indicating
teaching (literally, turning or
setting in motion the Wheel
[of Buddhist law]). Because
Shakyamuni spent more
than forty years traveling
and lecturing after his
enlightenment, this figure
could be a representation of
the Historical Buddha.

21. Standing Buddha Offering Protection, late 5th century India (Uttar Pradesh,
Mathura) Red sandstone; H. 33 11/16 in.
• Buddha embodies the
qualities of inner calm
and stillness, the
products of supreme
wisdom.
• The figure would have
made the mudra gesture
with his raised right hand
(now missing), dispensing
fear and imparting
reassurance to his
followers.

22. MONOTHEISM…Belief in one god and that
there is no other.
• Judaism—image making
forbidden
• Christianity—many kinds of
images of God
• Islam—Allah the same deity of
Jewish and Christian faiths

23. Judaism…Synagogue at Dura-Europos c.245
• Chosen people
• Special covenant with God, Yahweh
• Second Commandment forbade images

24. Christianity
• High Renaissance
• Solemn composure and
cross portend their
roles
• Human figures—dignity
and serenity divine
• Implied triangle, stable,
symmetrical, sacred
shape recalls Trinity
Raphael, Madonna of the Meadow, 1505

25. Grunewald. Isenheim Altarpiece, Germany, c.1510
Conceptual rather than realistic representation.
Lamb—holds cross and chalice—symbols of sacrifices conducted by Jews in the past
and current offering of bread and wine

27. ISLAM
Images of Allah are
forbidden, the
prophet Mohammed is
sometimes shown in
religious manuscript
art.
Mohammed’s Ascent into
Heaven, from Nizami’s Five
Poems, Tabriz, Iran,
c.1539
His face is veiled out of
respect

28. Humans Respond to God
– Offerings
– Ceremonies
– Rituals

29. Offering with Cili-
Shaped Crown. Flowers,
fruit, and palm leaves,
approximately 24" tall.
Bali, c. 1985.
Ancient symbol of
wealth, fertility, and
luck, the cili is a
simplified woman’s head
with a large, fanlike
headdress radiating
form it.

30. Retablo of Maria de la Luz Casillas and Children. Oil on metal, 7" 10". Central
Mexico, 1961.
A thank you note to God for successful operation.

31. Sacrifices
• The bloodletting rite of Lady
Xoc, of Yaxchilan, Chiapas,
Mexico. While her husband,
the king Shield Jaguar, holds a
large torch above her, she
pulls a thorn-lined rope
through her tongue. Her blood
drips into a woven basket
containing blood stained paper,
the stringray spine that pierced
her tongue, and the end of the
rope. The bloody paper will be
burnt as offering to the gods
to prove her royal lineage.

32. Ghiberti, Sacrifice of Isaac, Florence, 1401, gilded bronze
• Ram is sacrificed
Judeo-Christian religions recognized the offering of
foodstaffs and have a history of blood sacrifice.

34. Jewish circumcision ritual
RITUAL

35. THE COSMOS
– Artists have attempted to create images and
diagrams that account for the relationships
between the elements and events of the
universe.
– Maps the relationship between humans and
gods or delineates the origin of the world.

36. The mandala begins with a
cirlce—symbol of the void
before creation.
In this mandala the deity
Samvara erotically embraced
his female Buddha consort.
MANDALA OF SAMVARA (Kharamukha Cakrasamvara Mandala). Water-based
pigments on cotton cloth. 23" high, 18" wide. Tibet, c. sixteenth century

37. Samvara (who rules and sets the
universe into motion) erotically
embraces his female Buddha consort,
Vajravarahi.
Samvara—blue skin, many arms—
symbol of power and divinity—donkey
face (because those meditating on this
image learn the illusory nature of the
physical body)

38. God separating the light from darkness.

39. Michelangelo’s Creation of Adam shows that human bodies are a
reflection of God.

40. Places of Worship
• Since prehistory, people have set aside special
places for religious worship. All these places, from
simple to grand, are designed to reveal something of
the spiritual realm and to provide an experience
beyond the normal and mundane. Across cultures and
religions, places of worship may
• shelter a congregation
• house sacred objects
• incorporate elements of nature
• provide sites for repeated religious celebrations
• incorporate symbolic geometry in their dimensions or
the determination of their location
• incorporate the concept of journey or provide a
destination for pilgrims
–

41. Because the Jewish peoples seldom had a permanent homeland in the early
years of their history, a tent was likely their early place of worship as well as a
temporary temple.
In the Jewish religion, the Temple of Solomon contained the sacred scriptures
called the Torah and other sacred objects. The most holy structure, called the Ark
of the Covenant, was a special tabernacle—housed the Torah

42. INCORPORATING ELEMENTS OF NATURE
Places of worship can be natural sites: mountains, springs, and sacred
trees or groves. Mountains have been meeting places between heaven
and earth or dwelling places of divine beings. Rocks can be seen as
containers or symbols for spirits and deities. The earth and water are
the sources or sustainers of life. Trees may be seen as sources of truth
and symbols of the cosmos, existing simultaneously in the underworld,
the earth, and the heavens. Fire, light, and the sun are divine symbols
or sometimes spirits themselves.
The Ziggurat at Ur, dated c. 2150–2050 BCE, is a sacred artificial
mountain erected by the Sumerians of the city of Ur to honor their
special deity from among the Sumerian pantheon of gods. Its corners
point toward the four points of the compass, reflecting the movement of
the sun. The word ziggurat itself means “mountain” or “pinnacle.”
Surrounded by flat land, this terraced tower of rubble and brick seemed
to reach into the heavens. The Ziggurat at Ur has three broad
staircases, each with one hundred steps, leading to a temple-shrine
forty feet above the ground, dedicated to protective gods and
goddesses and attended to by special orders of priests and priestesses.

43. Nanna Ziggurat, c. 2100-2050 BCE
ziggura
t

44. Ziggurat of Ur c.2150 BCE

45. PROVIDING SITES FOR SACRED CEREMONIES
Places of worship are sites where sacred ceremonies are performed.
Sometimes there is no special architecture, only the use of the arts—
music, dance, singing, literature, or the visual arts. In the southwestern
United States, the making of sand paintings has constituted an essential
part of Navajo religious ceremonies for centuries. These impermanent
paintings are made directly on clean-swept floors of houses and are
destroyed in the course of the ceremony. Very few have ever been
photographed or documented; however, the rituals are fixed, and certain
symbols must be repeated each time. To cure illness, ensure success in
hunting, or promote fertility, the artist-priest chants and prays while
making the painting using the natural elements of colored sand, crushed
stones, charcoal, and pollen. The person in need sits in the center of the
painting to receive the supernatural power. Sometimes ceremonies are
performed for the earth itself.

46. USING GEOMETRY SYMBOLICALLY
Many cultures use geometry and symmetry
to symbolize divinity, all-encompassing
totality, perfection, and timelessness. Such
geometry may determine the placement or
orientation of religious sites, or a building’s
plan, layout, or elevation.
Stonehenge, dated c. 2000 BCE, in Wilt-
shire, England, was built at a time when
religion and science were not separate but
were a single, unified means of
understanding natural forces. Thus,
Stonehenge is likely an altar for religious
rituals as well as an astronomical device
that maps solar and planetary movement
upon the earth. The stone arrangement
marks the midsummer solstice, essential to
an agrarian civilization dependent on
successful crop planting. Other Neolithic
stone arrangements in the area align with
Stonehenge, creating a larger network that
may have mapped force fields within the
earth.

47. Possibly used for astronomical observations or rituals. It is the earliest example of
public art in N. Europe.

48. The heel stone or Sunstone stands 256 feet from the center of Stonehenge. It's top
is nearly level with the horizon on the longest day or Summer Solstice. It is an
undresses stone, naturally pointed at the top.

49. STONEHENGE, Salisbury Plain, England. c. 2750-1500 BCE

50. Aerial view of the
Pantheon, Rome, Italy,
118–125 CE.
50

51. Longitudinal and lateral sections of the Pantheon,
Rome, Italy, 118–125 CE.
51

52. Interior of the Pantheon, Rome, Italy,
118–125 CE.
52

53. • PROVIDING DESTINATIONS FOR PILGRIMAGES
• A pilgrimage is a journey to a shrine or sacred place
for believers hoping to receive special blessings or
deepening of faith. The concept of journey is both
metaphoric and actual, as the soul’s spiritual search
for understanding has been likened to a physical
journey. Almost all major religions incorporate the
concept of pilgrimage into their belief systems; for
example, Hindus and Buddhists journey to shrines;
Jews, to Jerusalem; Christians, to various sites such
as Lourdes; and Muslims, to Mecca. Our first example
is from the Longmen caves in China, a huge complex of
cave-shrines housing thousands of sacred statues,
which is a Buddhist pilgrimage destination. At
Longmen, 1,352 caves have been carved into the
limestone mountains, with over 97,000 statues and
3,600 inscriptions dedicated to Buddha.

54. The largest of these is the monumental Shrine to Vairocana
Buddha, dated c. 600–650, who is the universal principle
dominating all life and all phenomena.
He is attended by demons and lesser Buddhas who govern their own worlds,
a model used by tyrant emperors in China to justify their rule. In fact,
the carvings at the Longmen caves were supported by imperial patronage.
The Buddha at the center is serene, massive, and volumetric, with drapery
defined with a few simple curves, to enhance the colossal scale of the

55. Le Corbusier, Notre Dame du Haut, a Catholic chapel in the Vosges
Mountains of France, built between 1950 and 1955, is a pilgrimage destination.
The design recalls praying hands, the wings of a dove, and the shape of a
boat, all Christian symbols of divine generosity to humans. The shape of the
structure resembles sculpture.

56. Dome of the Rock
Jerusalem
687-692
PILGRIMAGE SITE…NOT A MOSQUE

57. Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem, 687-692
Sacred pilgrimage for Jews, Christians and Muslims.
Oldest example of great Islamic architecture…monument to the
triumph of Islam over the land of the Jews and Christians in
638.
Built on rock platform the site of:
Burial place of
Adam
Altar—
Abraham/Isaac
Hebrew Temple at
Jerusalem
destroyed by the
Roman Emperor
Titus in 70
Stone from which
Mohammed
ascended to
heaven

58. • The rock in the center of the dome it is believed
by Muslims to be the spot from which
Muhammad ascended through the heavens to God
accompanied by the angel Gabriel, where he
consulted with Moses and was given the (now
obligatory) Islamic prayers before returning to
earth.
• In Judaism, the stone is the site where Abraham
fulfilled God's test to see if he would be willing to
sacrifice his son Isaac.
• It is also identified as the rock upon which Jacob
dreamt about angels ascending and descending on
a ladder.

59. Dome of the Rock
Jerusalem
687-692

60. Dome of the Rock (interior)
Jerusalem
687-692

61. TEMPLE COMPLEXES
SACRED ARCHITECTURE
Grand places of worship are expressions of temporal power, religious
power, and broad cultural values. With imposing size and lavish detail,
these structures are spectacles. In ceremonies, the individual is reduced to
spectator, part of the throng that adds to the religious importance of the
site.

62. Temple Complexes
• Temple Complexes and Large-Scale Sacred
Architecture: examine the history, the
settings, the plans and designs of the
following examples
– The Greek temple
– The Mesoamerican temple
– The Hindu temple
– The Gothic cathedral
– The Buddhist temple
– The Islamic mosque

63. EGYPTIAN TEMPLE

64. GREEK TEMPLE

65. FRENCH GOTHIC CATHEDRAL

66. The plans reveal how important geometry is in these designs to suggest perfection,
completion, balance, and formality. Symmetry is an excellent visual metaphor for political
power and divinity.

67. The plans reveal how important geometry is in these designs to suggest
perfection, completion, balance, and formality. Symmetry is an excellent
visual metaphor for political power and divinity.
The Pyramid of the Sun is the largest building in Teotihuacan and one
of the largest in Mesoamerica.

68. ISLAMIC

69. Golden Age of Greece, Parthenon built as a tribute to all gods and dedicated to Athena.

70. The columns contoured slightly on the bias with a slight swelling in the middle of the
column, called entasis.

71. In Christian times, the Virgin Mary replaced the cult deity statue of Athena in
the cella. The Parthenon then became a Byzantine Church, then a Catholic
cathedral, and then under the Turks, the Parthenon became a mosque. It was
in perfect condition until 1687 CE, when the Turks kept gunpowder in the cella
and it exploded.

72. The Parthenon had two interior rooms for housing sacred objects and the
treasury, rooms that only a few priests entered. Religious ceremonies took place
outside, so originally the exterior was richly adorned with sculpture and brightly
painted.

73. Large sculptures of the gods stood in the pediment and near the roof and a long
band of sculpture (three feet six inches high, 524 feet long), called a frieze, girded
the top outside walls of the Parthenon’s two inner chambers. Carved c. 440 BCE,
the frieze shows a long procession of Greek worshippers climbing up to the
Parthenon, with marshals, youths, maidens, musicians, jar carriers, horsemen, and
charioteers, some bringing animals for sacrifice. At the beginning of the procession,
the worshippers are raucous and unorganized, like our Horsemen. Gradually, the
worshippers become solemn and orderly as they approach the gods. This is
probably a depiction of the special Panathenaic Festival procession, which occurred
every four years to bring a new ceremonial tunic to robe an ancient wooden statue
of Athena.

74. • Mathematical Proportions and Greek
Philosophy
• In their science, geometry, art,
religion, and philosophy, the Greeks
were engaged in a search for
perfection. For example, they believed
that certain geometric ratios and
certain musical intervals resonated
with the cosmic order and were in tune
with the heavens. Thus, builders used a
consistent set of proportions to
determine the length and width of parts
within the Parthenon, and they balanced
horizontal and vertical elements to
give the structure a quality of self-
containment. By not being overwhelming
in size, the Parthenon also reflects

75. • THE EGYPTIAN TEMPLE
• Egyptian temple design remained relatively constant for
3,000 years, and so the study of one will illustrate the
qualities of many.
• Setting and History
• Protected by the desert, life in ancient Egypt was
unusually stable. Natural cycles, such as night and day
and the annual flooding of the Nile River, provided
powerful symbols for the Egyptian religion. The
Egyptians used symbolic geometry to demarcate sacred
alignments in the landscape. East-west marked the path
of the sun god, Re, symbolizing life, death, and
resurrection. The north-south axis paralleled the Nile
River. Generally, cult temples, which were used to
worship gods, were located on the east bank of the Nile,
like the rising sun, while funerary temples were on the
west. Cult temples were often parts of large sacred
cities. Successive pharaohs would add new temples to the
complex or expand existing ones.

76. Great Pylon of the Horus Temple at Edfu…sacred cult image of the sun falcon
Pylon (pie-lan) truncated pyramid form usu. seen in Egyptian monumental gates.

77. The first of many Hypostyle Halls in the Horus Temple at Edfu, Egypt, c.237 bce
The central columns are 66’ high and the capitals are 22’ in diameter…large enough
to hold 100 people.

78. • Hypostyle Hall Model, Karnak 1890
Location: Metrapolitan Museum of Art

79. Kandarya Mahadeva Temple. Khajuraho, India, tenth–eleventh centuries. This is one of thirty temples at
this site, dedicated to Shiva, Vishnu, or Mahavira. Main tower is 130' high.
An artificial mountain that surmounts the small, dark womb-chamber.
The basic shapes are symbols of male and female sexuality, representing sexual energy and the
procreative urge. Then they proliferate…

80. Reconstruction drawing of the Basilica Nova (Basilica of Constantine),
Rome, Italy, ca. 306–312 CE. 80

81. Gothic nave elevations
Laon Paris Chartres Amiens
Arcade
Gallery
Triforium
Clerestory

82. West facade of Chartres Cathedral
Chartres, France
begun 1134, rebuilt beginning 1194

83. Plan of Chartres Cathedral
Chartres, France
as rebuilt after 1194

84. Virgin and Child and Angels
(Notre Dame de la Belle Verrière)
choir of Chartres Cathedral
Chartres, France
ca. 1170
stained glass
16 ft. x 7 ft. 8 in.

85. Triforium wall of the nave
Chartres Cathedral
Chartres, France
ca. 1200-1260

86. Rose Window and lancets
north transept of Chartres Cathedral
Chartres, France
ca. 1220
stained glass
rose approximately 43 ft. in diameter

87. Other Expressions of Temple Structures
• Temporal power
• Religious power
• Broad cultural values
• Scale, design, symmetry
– Suggest perfection, completion, balance, and
formality
– Symmetry is metaphor for political power and
divinity

88. Symbols
• Islam—sphere and dome (heavens and
oneness with God), calligraphy (God)
• Hindu—circle (unknowable Supreme Being
• Christianity—triangle (trinity), light (God)
• Sun—both symbol and deity
• Jesus—lamb
• Holy Spirit—dove or fire
• Earth—female force to generate life

89. Animal features or natural phenomena can represent, act as
metaphors for, or symbolize deiities.
• Cow—Hathor (goddess of the heavens),
India’s sacred cow (fertility/abundance)
• Serpent—snake, cobra (royalty and
supreme power)
• Bird—Hawk (Horus-Sky God)
• Lamb
• Ram—W. Africa thunder god Shango

90. Images of Spiritual Beings
– Early deities
– Egyptian deities
– The Greek gods
– Hinduism
– Buddhism
– Judaism
– Christianity
– Gods for special purposes