This document provides an overview of child and adolescent development. It discusses key stages of development including childhood, adolescence, physical and motor development, brain development, linguistic and literacy development, and theories of cognitive development proposed by Piaget, Vygotsky, Kohlberg, Erikson, and Freud. The stages of development include the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage according to Piaget. Vygotsky's social development theory emphasizes the role of social interaction. Kohlberg's stages of moral development progress from obedience to universal ethical principles. Erikson's psychosocial stages include trust vs mistrust in infancy. Freud's psychoanalytic theory includes the id,
3. Childhood
3
â time for a boy or girl from birth until he or she is an adult.
â Period of time from infancy to the onset of puberty.
Convention on the Rights of the Child:
â Child: âevery human being below the age of 18 yearsâŠâ
Adolescence
- period of transition from childhood to adulthood.
4. growth
4
â Refers to quantitative changes in an individual as he
progresses in chronological age. It may refer to increase
in size, height or weight.
development
-progressive series of changes of an orderly and coherent
type leading to the individualâs maturation.
5. heredity
5
â Transmission of traits from parents to offspring through
the genes. It brings about development through the
process of maturation which is the unfolding of
hereditary potentials.
environment
-includes all forces that affect or influence man.
The process of development that occurs through the
medium of environment is learning.
6. Basic Principles of Growth and Development
6
1. Development follows and orderly sequence which is
predictable.
2. The rate of development is unique to each individual.
3. Development involves change
4. Early development is more critical than later development.
5. Development is the product of maturation and learning.
6. There are individual differences in development.
7. There are social expectations for every developmental
period which are often referred to as developmental tasks
7. Physical and Motor Development
7
Initially, babiesâ movements are simply the
uncontrolled, reflexive movements they are born
with.
Over time, they learn to move their body parts
voluntarily to perform both gross(large) and fine
(small) motor skills.
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Gross Motor
Skills
movements
related to large
muscles such as
legs, arms, etc.
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9
Fine Motor
Skills
movements
involving smaller
muscle groups
such as those in
the hand and
wrist.
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10
Cephalocaudal
sequence in which the earliest
growth always occurs at the top,
beginning with the head
Proximodistal
sequence in which growth starts
at the center of the body and
moves toward the extremities
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Root reflex
This reflex begins when the
corner of the baby's mouth is stroked
or touched. The baby will turn his or
her head and open his or her mouth to
follow and "root" in the direction of
the stroking.
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13
Suck reflex
Rooting helps the baby
become ready to suck.
When the roof of the baby's
mouth is touched, the baby
will begin to suck.
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14
Moro reflex
In response to a
sudden sound, the baby
throws back his or her head,
extends out the arms and
legs, cries, then pulls the
arms and legs back in
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15
Tonic neck reflex
When a baby's head is
turned to one side, the arm
on that side stretches out
and the opposite arm bends
up at the elbow. This is
often called the "fencing"
position.
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16
Grasp reflex
Stroking the palm of a
baby's hand causes the
baby to close his or her
fingers in a grasp.
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17
Babinski reflex
When the sole of the
foot is firmly stroked, the
big toe bends back
toward the top of the
foot and the other toes
fan out.
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18
Step reflex
This reflex is also called the
walking or dance reflex
because a baby appears to
take steps or dance when
held upright with his or her
feet touching a solid
surface.
20. BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
20
The brainâs ability to change from
experience is known as Plasticity.
Throughout life, the brain continues to
be plastic, but plasticity declines in
adulthood.
21. Factors Affecting Development
Maternal Nutrition
21
-The nutritional status of the woman during adolescence, pregnancy and
lactation has a direct impact on childâs health and development.
Child Nutrition
The childâs state of nutritional balance is crucial in his early development
stages.
Early Sensory Stimulation
Toys, soothing sounds and other sensorial stimulation contribute to
childâs development.
23. Noam Chomsky- Innatist Theory
23
The ability to understand a first-
language creates the opportunity to
unlock knowledge that a human is
believed to be able to process innately.
Children are born with a built-in ability
to learn a first-language. He refers to
this ability as LAD â a âLanguage
Acquisition Device.â
24. Jean Piaget- Cognitivist Theory
24
He concluded that through their
interactions with their environment,
children actively construct their own
understanding of the world.
Piaget's theory purports that childrenâs
language reflects the development of their
logical thinking and reasoning skills in
"periods" or stages, with each period
having a specific name and age
reference.
25. Lev Vygotsky- Social Contextual Theory
25
Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental
role of social interaction in the development of
cognition (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed
strongly that community plays a central role
in the process of "making meaning."
Vygotsky argued, "learning is a necessary
and universal aspect of the process of
developing culturally organized, specifically
human psychological function"
26. Biligual Language Development
26
Sequential Biligualism
- First two languages are learned but one is learned
before the other, before the age of 3.
Simultaneous Biligualism
Two first languages are learned at the same time,
before the age of 3.
27. Factors Affecting Language Development
27
1. Inadequate Stimulation (talking and playing with the child.)
2. Delayed general development (global development delay),
physical development (motor skills), cognitive development, etc.
3. Specific difficulty with language learning. Not very interested
in language, prefers other modalities.
4. Poor control and/or coordination of the speech muscles: lips,
tongue, etc.
5. Medical problems
28. Factors Affecting Language Development
28
6. Inadequate awareness of communication, lacks
âcommunication intentâ
7. Reduced hearing (ear infection, fluid in ear, impacted earwax)
8. Changes in childâs environment (moving)
9. Exposure to too many languages for the child.
10. inadequate opportunity for speech (the child talked for, the
âbabiedâ child, has more dominant sibling, etc).
29. Factors Affecting Language Development
29
11. Emotional factors (behavioral problems, anxiety, pressure to
perform, etc.)
12. Short attention span
13. Family history of speech and language delays or difficulties
31. 31
Aphasia
loss of the ability to produce and/or
comprehend language, due to injury to brain
areas specialized for these functions.
32. 32
Dyslexiaspecific learning disability that
manifests primarily as a difficulty
with written language particularly
with reading and spelling.
A result of neurological difference,
not an intellectual disability.
33. 33
Dysgraphia
is a deficiency in the
ability to write,
primarily in terms of
handwriting, also in
terms of coherence.
34. 34
Dyscalculia
(or math disability) is a specific learning disability involving innate difficulty in
learning or comprehending simple mathematics.
Math disabilities can also occur as the result of some types of brain injury, in
which case the proper term is acalculia, to distinguish it from dyscalculia which
is of innate, genetic or developmental origin
35. 35
Dysnomia
difficulty retrieving the correct words, names, or
numbers from memory. Dysnomia is a learning
disability present from childhood which can affect
speech, writing, and/or math
36. 36
GiftednessChildren are gifted when their ability is significantly above the
norm for their age.
Giftedness may manifest in one or more domains such as;
intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership, or in a specific academic
field such as language arts, mathematics or science.
37. 37
Mental Retardation
Pattern of persistently slow learning of basic motor and language
skills (milestones) during childhood, and a significantly below-
normal gobal intellectual capacity as an adult.
One common criterion for diagnosis of mentalr etardation is a
tested intelligence quotient (IQ) of 70 or below and deficits in
adaptive functioning.
38. 38
Autism
-Autism, or autism spectrum disorder (ASD), refers to a
broad range of conditions characterized by challenges
with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and
nonverbal communication
-all exhibited before a child is three years old.
-No cure
39. 39
Aspergerâs syndrome
-distinguished from other ASDs in having no general
delay in language or cognitive development.
Typical to strong verbal language skills and intellectual
ability distinguish Asperger syndrome from other forms
of autism.
40. 40
Aspergerâs syndromeIt generally involves:
Difficulty with social interactions
Restricted interests
Desire for sameness
Distinctive strengths
Strengths can include:
Remarkable focus and persistence
Aptitude for recognizing patterns
Attention to detail
Challenges can include:
Hypersensitivities (to lights, sounds, tastes, etc.)
Difficulty with the give and take of conversation
Difficulty with nonverbal conversation skills (distance, loudness, tone, etc.)
Uncoordinated movements, or clumsiness
41. 41
Down Syndrome (trisomy 21)
- Presence of all or part of an extra 21st
chromosome.
- Associated with impairment of cognitive
ability and physical growth as well as facial
appearance
- Can be identified during pregnancy or at
birth
- Lower than average cognitive ability
A few of the common physical traits of Down syndrome are low
muscle tone, small stature, an upward slant to the eyes, and a
single deep crease across the center of the palm
42. 42
Tourette syndrome
Tourette syndrome (TS) is a neurological disorder characterized by
repetitive, stereotyped, involuntary movements and vocalizations
called tics.
Simple motor tics are sudden, brief, repetitive movements that
involve a limited number of muscle groups.
Complex tics are distinct, coordinated patterns of movements
involving several muscle groups.
43. 43
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Neurological in nature
Characterized by a persistent patter of inattention and/or
hyperactivity, as well as forgetfulness, impulsivity, and
distractibility.
No medical cure is available
44. 44
Cerebral Palsy
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a problem that
affects muscle tone, movement, and
motor skills. It hinders the body's
ability to move in a coordinated and
purposeful way. It also can affect
other body functions that involve
motor skills and muscles, like
breathing, bladder and bowel
control, eating, and talking.
45. 45
Jean Piaget's Theory of
Cognitive Development
He disagreed with the idea that intelligence
was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive
development as a process which occurs due
to biological maturation and interaction
46. 46
There Are Three Basic Components To
Piaget's Cognitive Theory:
Schemas
(building blocks
of knowledge).
47. 47
There Are Three Basic Components To
Piaget's Cognitive Theory:
Assimilation
â Which is using an existing
schema to deal with a new
object or situation.
Accommodation
â This happens when the
existing schema (knowledge)
does not work, and needs to
be changed to deal with a
new object or situation.
49. 49
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
During this stage, young children can think about things
symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing - a word or
an object - stand for something other than itself.
50. 50
Key features of pre-operational stage
Centration
Centration is the tendency to focus on only one
aspect of a situation at one time
51. 51
Key features of pre-operational stage
Egocentrism
Egocentrism refers to the child's inability to see a situation
from another person's point of view.
52. 52
Key features of pre-operational stage
Animism
This is the belief that inanimate objects (such as toys and
teddy bears) have human feelings and intentions.
53. 53
Key features of pre-operational stage
Artificialism
This is the belief that certain aspects of the environment
are manufactured by people (e.g. clouds in the sky).
54. 54
Key features of pre-operational stage
Irreversibility
This is the inability the reverse the direction of a sequence
of events to their starting point.
55. 55
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning
point in the child's cognitive development because it
marks the beginning of logical or operational thought.
57. 57
Key features of concrete operational stage
Classification is the ability to identify the properties of
categories, to relate categories or classes to one another, and
to use categorical information to solve problems.
58. 58
Key features of concrete operational stage
Seriationâthe ability to sort objects in an order according to
size, shape, or any other characteristic. For example, if given
different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient.
59. 59
Key features of concrete operational stage
Elimination of Egocentrismâthe ability to view things from
another's perspective
60. 60
Formal Operational Stage (11 years and beyond)
The child is capable of abstract thinking and can
solve higher scientific and mathematic.
61. 61
Lev Vygotsky (Social Development Theory)
The major theme of Vygotskyâs
theoretical framework is that social
interaction plays a fundamental
role in the development of cognition.
62. 62
Lev Vygotsky (Social Development Theory)
More Knowledgeable
Other
refers to someone who has
a better understanding or a
higher ability level than the
learner, with respect to a
particular task, process, or
concept.
63. 63
Lev Vygotsky (Social Development Theory)
Zone of Proximal
Development
the difference between
what a child can achieve
independently and what a
child can achieve with
guidance and
encouragement from a
skilled partner
64. 64
Lev Vygotsky (Social Development Theory)
Scaffolding
Scaffolding consists of
the activities provided by
the educator, or more
competent peer, to
support the student as he
or she is led through the
zone of proximal
development.
66. Kohlbergâs stages of moral development
66
Level 1:
Preconventional
Stage 1: Obedience-and-
Punishment Orientation
focuses on the childâs desire to obey
rules and avoid being punished.
67. Kohlbergâs stages of moral development
67
Level 1:
Preconventional
Stage 2: Instrumental
Orientation
expresses the âwhatâs in it for
me?â position, in which right
behavior is defined by whatever
the individual believes to be in
their best interest.
68. Kohlbergâs stages of moral development
68
Level 2: Conventional
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl
Orientation
children want the approval of
others and act in ways to avoid
disapproval. Emphasis is placed
on good behavior and people
being âniceâ to others.
69. Kohlbergâs stages of moral development
69
Level 2:
Conventional
Stage 4: Law-and-Order
Orientation
the child blindly accepts
rules and convention
because of their importance
in maintaining a functioning
society.
70. Kohlbergâs stages of moral development
70
Level 3: Post Conventional
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
The world is viewed as holding different
opinions, rights, and values. Laws are
regarded as social contracts rather than
rigid edicts.
71. Kohlbergâs stages of moral development
71
Level 3: Post Conventional
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal
Orientation
Reasoning is based on abstract reasoning
using universal ethical principles. Generally,
the chosen principles are abstract rather than
concrete and focus on ideas such as equality,
dignity, or respect.
76. Sigmund Freud Psychoanalytic
Theory of Personality
76
The Id
The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with instant
gratification of basic physical needs and urges
The Superego
The superego is concerned with social rules and moralsâsimilar to what
many people call their â conscience â or their âmoral compass.â
The Ego
the rational, pragmatic part of our personality and its job is to balance the
demands of the id and superego in the practical context of reality.
77. Sigmund Freud Psychoanalytic
Theory of Personality
77
The ego can deploy various defense
mechanisms (Freud, 1894, 1896) to prevent it from
becoming overwhelmed by anxiety.
82. 82
Albert Bandura - Social Learning Theory
Children pay attention to some
of these people (models)
and encode their behavior.
At a later time they may imitate
(i.e., copy) the behavior they
have observed.
83. 83
Albert Bandura - Social Learning Theory
There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura:
Attention: For a behavior to be imitated, it has to grab our
attention
Retention: How well the behavior is remembered.
Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that
the model has just demonstrated.
Motivation: The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and
punishment that follow a behavior will be considered by the
observer.
85. BF Skinner - Operant Conditioning
85
Operant conditioning is a method of learning
that occurs through rewards and punishments
for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an
individual makes an association between a
particular behavior and a consequence
87. Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning)
87
involves learning to associate an
unconditioned stimulus that already brings
about a particular response (i.e., a reflex) with
a new (conditioned) stimulus, so that the new
stimulus brings about the same response.
90. Howard Gardner (Multiple Intelligence)
90
Gardner claims that all human beings have multiple
intelligences.
These multiple intelligences can be nurtured and
strengthened or ignored and weakened.
His research from 1991 identified seven intelligences; in the
intervening time, he has come to believe there are a total of
nine intelligences:
91. Howard Gardner (Multiple Intelligence)
91
Verbal-Linguistic
Intelligence: Well-
developed verbal skills
and sensitivity to the
sounds, meanings and
rhythms of words.
92. Howard Gardner (Multiple Intelligence)
92
Mathematical-Logical
Intelligence:
The ability to think
conceptually and
abstractly, and the
capacity to discern logical
or numerical patterns.
93. Howard Gardner (Multiple Intelligence)
93
Musical Intelligence:
The ability to produce
and appreciate
rhythm, pitch and
timbre.
94. Howard Gardner (Multiple Intelligence)
94
Visual-Spatial
Intelligence:
The capacity to think
in images and
pictures, to visualize
accurately and
abstractly.
95. Howard Gardner (Multiple Intelligence)
95
Bodily-Kinesthetic
Intelligence:
The ability to control
one's body movements
and to handle objects
skillfully.
96. Howard Gardner (Multiple Intelligence)
96
Interpersonal
Intelligence:
The capacity to detect
and respond
appropriately to the
moods, motivations and
desires of others.
97. Howard Gardner (Multiple Intelligence)
97
Intrapersonal
Intelligence:
The capacity to be self-
aware and in tune with
inner feelings, values,
beliefs and thinking
processes.
98. Howard Gardner (Multiple Intelligence)
98
Naturalist
Intelligence:
The ability to recognize
and categorize plants,
animals and other
objects in nature.
99. Howard Gardner (Multiple Intelligence)
99
Existential Intelligence:
The sensitivity and
capacity to tackle deep
questions about human
existence, such as the
meaning of life, why we
die and how we got here.
100. Howard Gardner (Multiple Intelligence)
100
While all people possess
some level of each
intelligence, most will
experience more dominant
intelligences which impact
the way they learn and
interact with the world around
them.
101. Edward lee thorndike-Connectionism
101
Learning is the result of associations
forming between stimuli and
responses. Such associations or
âhabitsâ become strengthened or
weakened by the nature and
frequency of the S-R pairings.
102. Edward lee thorndike-Connectionism
102
1. law of effect
2. law of readiness
3. law of exercise
The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends
upon the presence of identical elements in the original
and new learning situations; i.e., transfer is always
specific, never general.
104. Jerome Bruner's Three Modes of Representation
104
Enactive
This appears first. It involves
encoding action based
information and storing it in our
memory. For example, in the form of
movement as a muscle memory, a
baby might remember the action of
shaking a rattle.
105. Jerome Bruner's Three Modes of Representation
105
Iconic
This is where information is
stored visually in the form
of images (a mental picture
in the mindâs eye .It is often
helpful to have diagrams or
illustrations to accompany
the verbal information.
106. Jerome Bruner's Three Modes of Representation
106
Symbolic
This develops last. This is
where information is stored in
the form of a code or symbol,
such as language.
108. 108
Bruner (1960) explained how this was possible
through the concept of the spiral
curriculum.
This involved information being structured so
that complex ideas can be taught at a
simplified level first, and then re-visited at
more complex levels later on.
109. Partenâs stages of play
109
Unoccupied play â
The child is seemingly
not engaged or
actively playing with
others at all. They
may remain stationary
and be engaged in
random movements
with no objective.
110. Partenâs stages of play
110
Solitary play â
During this stage of
play, children will
often play alone, with
toys different from
those of others, and
be uninterested or
unaware of what
others around them
are doing.
111. Partenâs stages of play
111
Onlooker play
Onlooker play is when a
child observes others
playing but does not join
the play. They will
frequently engage in other
forms of social interactions
such as conversations to
learn more about the
game or play that is going
on
112. Partenâs stages of play
112
Parallel play â This
occurs when children
play side-by-side from
one another, but there
is a lack of group
involvement amongst
them. They will typically
be playing with similar
toys and often times
mimic one another.
113. Partenâs stages of play
113
Associative play â At
this stage, children will
begin to play together,
but not focused towards
a common goal. A child
will be more interested
in playing with other
children around them
than the individual toys
they play with.
114. Partenâs stages of play
114
Cooperative play â
Cooperative play is
where play finally
becomes organized into
groups and teamwork is
seen. Children are now
interested in both the
people that they are
playing with as well as
the activity at hand.