Structural Mechanics and Materials

Department of Civil Engineering NPIC

matika
CMBUk I..............................................................................6
eRKagsMNg;emkanik .................................................................6
Structural Mechanic .............................................................6
1> karkMNt;bnÞúk .....................................................................6
1>1 RbePTénbnÞúk .................................................................6
1>2 bnÞúk (Service Loads) ..........................................................8
1>3 emKuNbnÞúk ...................................................................9
2> Stress and Strain ................................................................11
2>1 Static Equilibrium .............................................................11
2>2 Unit Stress and Strain ..........................................................12
2>3 Hooke’s Law .................................................................12
2>4 Constant Unit Stress ...........................................................13
2>5 Poisson’s Ratio................................................................14
CMBUkII ³..........................................................................15
dI nig RKwH ........................................................................15
Soil and foundation ............................................................15
1> esckþIepþIm ......................................................................15
1>1 emkanicdI ...................................................................15
1>2 visVkmμRKWH (Foundation Engineering) ...........................................16
2> karsikSaRsavRCavelIkardæanpÞal; (field exploitation) ..................................16
2>1 karsikSaelIÉksar (document Review) .........................................17
2>2 karsikSaRsavRCavépÞeRkamdI (Subsurface Exploration ) ............................18
2>3 sMNakKMrUdI Soil Sampling ....................................................19
Construction General -1-


2>4 karBiesaFn_enAnwgkardæan Field testing ..........................................21
3> RKwH Foundation ................................................................23
3>1 RKwHrak; Shallow Foundation ..................................................24
3>2 RKwHeRCA ....................................................................27
4> karCIkdIsMrab;eFVIRKwH Foundation excavation ..........................................28
4>1 karCIkdIsMrab;eCIgtag Footing Excavation .......................................28
4>2 karxYgsMrab; Excavation of Piers ...............................................28
4>3 karCIkdIcMhr open excavation .................................................30
4>4 karCIkdIedaymanCnÞl; braced excavtion .........................................30
5> viFIbegáInsßanPaBRTRTg;dI Improvement methods ......................................30
5/1 karBRgabdI Grading ..........................................................30
5>2 eKalkarN_énkarbgðab; Compaction Foundation ..................................33
CMBUkIII³ ..........................................................................35
eRKagsMNg;ebtugmanq¥wgr)aeEdkBRgwgnig sMPar³ebtug..............................35
Reinforcing bar concrete sturcture and concrete meterial .................35
1> sMParsuIm:g;t_ Cementitious material ................................................35
1>1 RbePTénsMPar³suIm:g;t_ Type of cementitious meterials ............................35
1>2 suIm:g;t_Br½tøg; (Portland Cement) ...............................................36
1>3 suIm:g;t_GaluymIj:Úm Aluminous Cement ........................................37
1>4 suIm:g;t_FmμCati Natural Cements ...............................................38
1>5 kMe)ar Limes ................................................................38
1>6 suIm:g;t_erobdæ Masonry ament ................................................41
1>7 Fly ashes ..................................................................41
2>fμbMEbk Aggregate ...............................................................42


2>1 fμbMEbkTMgn;Fmμta Normal –weigth aggregates....................................42
2>2 fμbMEbkEdlmanTMgn;F¶n;nig Rsal Heavy weigth and light weigth aggregate ..........43
3> TwkfñaMKImIsMrab;ebtug Admixture for concrete ........................................44
3/1 TwkfñaMKImIBIKImI nig BIEr: Chimical and mineral admixture ............................44
4> kMe)ar)ayGr nig ebtug Mortar and concrete .........................................47
4>1 kMe)ar)ayGr Motar ..........................................................47
4>2 ebtugsuIm:g;t_B½rtøg; Portland cement concrete.....................................48
4>3 ebtugb:UlIEmr Polymer concrete................................................48
5> karcak;ebtug Concrete Placement..................................................49
5>1 karGnuvtþn_d¾l¥ Good Pratice .................................................49
5>2 viFIénkarcak; Methods of Placing ...............................................50
5>3 PaBelIsTwk Excess water ....................................................50
5>4 kareFVIeGayhab; Consolidation ................................................51
5>5 karcak;ebtugeRKOgbgÁúMbBaÄr Concreting vertical element ...........................52
5>6 karcak;ebtugeRKOgbgÁúMedk concreting horizontal element...........................53
5>7 karcak;ebtugkñúgrdUvRtCak; Concreting in cold weather .............................54
5>8 karcak;ebtugGakasFatuekþA Concreting in hot weather...........................55
5>9 karEfrrkSasMeNImebtug Curing concrete .......................................55
5>10 muxtMNrsMrab;ebtug Joint in concrete .........................................56
5>11 karRtYtBinitüBIkarcak;ebtug Inspection of Concrete placement ...................58
6> eRKOgbgÁúMénsMNg;ebtug Members of concrete construction .............................58
6>1 kMral Slab .................................................................58
6>2 Fñwm Beam ..................................................................60
6>3 CBa¢aMg Wall ................................................................60


6>4 RKwH Foundation .............................................................61
CMBUk IV ..........................................................................64
sMNg;eRKagbgÁúMGMBIEdk.............................................................64
STRUCTURAL STEEL CONSTRUCTION ...............................64
1> karKitbøg;éneRKOgbgÁúM Design of Members ...........................................64
1>1 eKalkarN_sMrab; ASD nig LRFD BASED FOR ASD AND LRFD .....65

1>2 CMnYyénkarKItbøg; nigeyag Design Aids and References........................66
1>3 eRKOgbgÁúMrgnUvkMlaMgTay Tension member ...................................66
1>4 ssr Column ..............................................................67
1>5 Fñwm Beam ................................................................69
1>6 Plaster girders ..............................................................70
2> karksagsMNg;Edk Steel erection .................................................71
2>1 ]bkrN_énkarsagsg; Erection Equipment....................................73
2>2 RbeLaHkñúgkarsagsg;Fñwm Clearance for erecting beams ...........................74
2>3 lMdab;énkarsagsg; Erection sequence .........................................77
2>4 dMeNIrkarpSar Field –Welding .................................................77
CMBUk V ...........................................................................80
eRKOgbgÁMGMBIeQI nigsMPar³.........................................................80
WOOD STRUCTURE AND MATERIAL .................................80
1> sMPar³ Material .................................................................81
1>1 lkçN³mUldæanrbs;eQI Basic Characteristic of Wood .............................81
1>2 lkçN³emkanicéneQI Mechanical Properties of Wood ..........................83
1>3 lkçN³T§iBlRsUbcMhayTwkkñúgxül; Effect of hygroscopic properties ...............84
1>4> lMdab;fñak;éneQI Grade of Wood ..............................................87


1>5 sarFatubMpøaj nig sarFaturkSakarBar Destroyer and preservative....................90
1>6 kavnig sarFatusMrab;eQI Glues and adhesives for wood ...........................92
1>7 karplitkþakug)øaek nigkþabnÞHepSgeTot Plywood and fabricated wood board..........93
2> karpliteQI timber nigkarksag timber fabrication and erection .......................95
2>1 karpliteRKagbgÁúMeQI Fabrication of structural timber .............................95
2>2 karsagsg;eQI timber erection ................................................97
CMBUkVI³ ........................................................................101
eRKagCBa¢aMgerob¬dæ/ bøúk/ fμ¦ nigsMPar³ ........................................101
Masonry Structure and Material............................................101
1> esckþIepþIm Introduction ........................................................101
1>1 CBa¢aMgerobdæ Masonry Wall ................................................101
1>2 niymn½yénCBa¢aMgerobdæ Masonry Definition .................................101
2> KuNPaBénsMPar³sMrab;CBa¢aMgrabdæ Quality of Material for Masonry ..................105
2>1 tMrUvkarTUeTAsMrab;karKitCalkçN³bTdæan General Requirement of Design Standard ..106
2>2 sMPar³sMrab;sMNg;rabdæ Materials for Masonry Construction ....................107
3> sMNg;rabdæ Construction of masonry............................................107
3>1 sMNg;CBa¢aMgrabdækñúgGakasFatuRtCak; Cold weather construction of masonry walls 110
3>2 cgP¢ab;rvag Wythes sMrab;CBa¢aMgdæ Bond between wythes in Masonry wall .......110
3>3 rabdæeday grout grout masonry .....................................112

3>4 lkç½xN½ÐTMrsMrab;CBa¢aMg Support Conditions for Wall ............................115
3>5 Corbeling ................................................................115
3>6 RbelaHRbehag/ Chases nig rescesses sMrab;CBa¢aMgerobdæ .......................116
3>7 Flashing enAkñúgCBa¢aMgrabdæ ................................................117
4> TMrxagsMrab;CBa¢aMgrabdænig FaturYmpSMepSg² ........................................118


Lateral support for masonry wall and other elements .................................118
4>1 TMrxagsMrab;CBa¢aMgrabdæ lateral support for masonry wall ........................118
4>2 bMBg;EpSg nigeCIgRkandMedApÞH Chimneys and fireplaces .........................122
4>3 karpþl;nUvTMhMEdlpøas;bþÚr Provision for dimensional changes .....................123
4>4 CYsCulmuxtMNlicTwk Repair of leaky joint ....................................126
4>5 tMrUvkarkMras;CBa¢aMgdæ Masonry Thickness Requirement ..........................127
CMBUk I

eRKagsMNg;emkanik
Structural Mechanic
3
1> karkMNt;bnÞúk
bnÞúk (Load) KWCakMlaMgeRkAEdlmanGMeBIelIeRKOgbgÁúMNamYy. Stress KWCakMlaMgkñúgEdl
Tb;Tl;nwgbnÞúk (Loads) . Ep¥kelIlkçN³énbnÞúkEdlRtUveKykmkGnuvtþ vaGaceFVIeGayeRKOgbgÁúMnig
smasPaBrbs;vaxUcRTg;RTay.
]TahrN_ ³ kMlaMgTajGaceFVIeGayvtßúmYyyWt kMlMagsgát;GacRc)ac;vtßúbBa©ÚlKña kMlaMgrmYlGac
Rt)aj;vtßúmYynig kMlaMgkat;pþac; (Shearing Forces) GacrujEpñkNamYyéneRKOgbgÁúMecjBIKña.
1>1 RbePTénbnÞúk
bnÞúkeRkAéneRKOgbgÁúMRtUveKEbgEckeTAtamRbePTepSg²Kña.enAkñúgenaHkarEbgEckmYy RtUveKBinitü
eTAelIPaBnwgfál; (Static) nig kMlaMgkat;pþac; (Shearing Forces) GacrujEpñkNamYyén eRKOgbgÁMúecjBIKña.
- bnÞúkefr (Static Loads)KWCakMlaMgEdlRtUveKeRbIy:agyWt² ehIybnÞab;mkvaesÞIrEtefr.
]TahrN_ Tm¶n;/ bnÞúkefr rbs;RbB½n§GaKar b¤dMbUl.



- bnÞúkERbRbYl (Dynamic Loads) ³ ERbRbYleTAtameBlevla. varYmbBa©ÚlTaMg Repeat and Impact
Loads .

- Repeated Loads KWCakMlaMgEdlRtUveKykmkGnuvtþeRcIndgehIyvaGacbNþaleGayTMhM énkMlaMg
xagkñúgERbRbYl.
]TahrN_ Off-balance motor
- Impact Loads: kMlaMgEdlsgát;eTAelIeRKOgbgÁúMnig smasPaBrbs;vakñúgGMLúg
eBlxøImYy. ]TahrN_ karTmøak;vtßúF¶n;mYyeTAelIkMralx½NÐ (Floor) . kMlaMgxageRkARtUveKEbg
EckCakMlaMgBRgayesμIr (Distributed Loads) nig kMlaMgcMcMnuc (Concentration Loads) .
- Uniformly Distributed Loads: KWCakMlaMgEdlenAkñúgkarGnuvtþCak;EsþgvaRtUv)aneKcat; Tukfa
CakMlaMgEdlenAkñúgkarGnuvtþCak;Esþg.
]TahrN_ TMgn; efrénfñwm Edkrag I (Dead Weight of a rolled- Steel I beam is a good example)
- Concentrated Loads KWCakMlaMgEdlsgát;eTAelIépÞRTtUcesÞIEtminRtUveKrab;bBa©Úl ebI eRbobeFob
eTAnwgépÞTMrTaMgGs;.
]TahrN_ fñwm (Beam) EdlRTedayrt (Girder) RtUv)aneKcat;TukCabnÞúkcMcMnuc (Concentrated Loads)
eTAelI Girder .
viFIkMNt;énlkçN³bnÞúkd¾smBaØmYyepSgeTotenaHKW karkMNt;kMlaMgxageRkAEdlRtUv)an eKdak;
eQμaH Axial ecentric nig Torsional ³
- An axial load ³ KWCakMlaMgrYmmYyEdlsgát;cMG½kS ehIyEkgeTAnwgépÞmuxkat;TTwg.
- An ecentric load ³ KWCakMlaMgsgát;EdlEkgeTAnwgépÞénmuxkat; TTwg ehIyvamincMG½kS dUcenH
ehIyvaGackac;eCIgTMr.
- Torsional load ³ KWCakMlaMgrmYlEdlzitenAmincMG½kSrbs;muxkat;TTwg ehIyvaminman TisedAeTr
b¤ kñúgbøg;rbs;muxkat;enaHdUcenHvakac;eCIgTMr.
]TahrN_
- Dead Loads ³ rYmmansMPar³sMNg; sMPar³ eRbIR)as; rWk¾TMgn;epSg²eTotrbs;sMPar³enAkñúgGaKar
rYmTaMgTMgn;rbs;GaKarpÞal;EdlzitenAefrCaGcié®nþy_.



- Live Loads ³ rYmbBa©ÚlGñksñak;;enA sMPar³sMNg; sMPar³eRbIR)as; rWTMgn;epSgeTotenAkñúg GaKar
ehIyvaTMng nigRtUveKpøas;bþÚrTIkEnøgenAkñúgGMLúgGayukalkMNt;rbs;GaKar.
- Impact Loads ³KWCacMENkén Live loads EdlRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IrYmbEnßmnUv Stress nig Deflection
EdlCalT§plénkareFVIclnarbs; Live loads .
- Wind KWCabnÞúkF¶n;Gtibrmarbs;xül;Edlbk;mkelIGaKarkñúgGMLúgeBlNamYyrW vaCakMlaMgmYy
EdlbegáIteGayman Stress kñúgGMLúgeBlNamYy rWCakMlaMgmYyEdlbegáIteGayman Stress Rbhak;RbEhl
nwgkMlaMgxül;bk;enaH.
- Snow Loads KWCakMlaMgGtibrmaEdlmanGMeBIelIGaKaredaykarRbmUlpþúMKñarbs;RBilEdlekIteLIg
kñúgGMLúgeBlNamYy.
- Seismic Loads KWCakMlaMgTaMgLayNaEdlbegáIteGayman Stresses Gtibrma b¤k¾eFVIeGayGaKar
mYyxUcRTg;RTayenAkñúgeBlrBa¢ÜydI.
1>2 bnÞúk (Service Loads)
enAkñúgkarKNnaeRKOgbgÁúMrbs;GaKar GñkKNnaKYrEteRbIbnÞúkNak¾edayeGayFMCagbnÞúkxageRkam³
1> bnÞúkEdlRtUv)anKNnaenAkñúg nigtYrbs;GaKar.
2> kar):an;sμanbnÞúkGtibrma minRtwmEtBwgEp¥kelITItaMglkçx½NÐbc©úb,nñ nig KMnitedIménkareRbIR)as;
GaKarb:ueNÑaHeT bu:EnþvaRtUvEtrab;bBa©ÚlnUvehtukarN_EdlGacekIteLIgenAeBlGnaKtpgEdr. bnÞúkEdleK
min)andwgGMBITMhM rbs;vac,as;las;ehIyvaRtUveKcat;TukfaCa Statistical Vairables EdlKYrEtRtUveKeRCIserIs
eTAtamtMélRbEhlCak;lak;mYyEdlnwgminGacelIs)anenAkñúgGMLúgeBlénGayukalrbs;GaKar b¤ k¾Bwg
Ep¥kelIehtukarN_ekIteLIgkñúgry³eBl 50qñaMmþg RtUv)aneKykmkKNna. eTaHCay:agNak¾eday Interval
GacRtUveKyk 25qñaMsMrab;GaKarEdlKμanmnusSrs;enA b¤esÞIrEtKμankarb:HBal;dl;GayuCIvit b¤RtUveK
yk100qñaM sMrab;GaKarGcié®nþy_EdlpÞúkbnÞúkF¶n;ehIyGacKMramkMEhgdl;GayuCIvitmnusS nigRTBüsm,tþikñúg
karNImankardYlrlM.
kñúgkrNIEdlKμan Local or State Building Code GñkKNnaGaceRbIbnÞúkEdleKkMNt;c,as;las;enA
kñúgKMrUGaKarfñak;Cati (National Building Code) b¤tamBt’manxageRkam³
bnÞúkEdlRtUv)anykmkeRbIkñúgeRKOgbgÁúM rYmmandUcteTA bnÞúkeTal A lone b¤bnÞúkrYmKña
(Combination Load) . ]TahrN_ bnÞúkefr (Dead), Live, Impact, Earth Pressure, Hydrostatic Pressure, RBil



(Snow) Twkkk (Ice) ePøóg (Rain) xül; (wind) rW rBa¢ÜydI Constraining Forces EdlmandUcCakMlaMg én
Restriction of Thermal karrYmmaD (Shrinkage) b¤ Moisture-Change Movements b¤kMlaMgEdlbNþalmkBI
Creep, Plastic Flow, Differential settlement, Or Sidways(drift)

1>3 emKuNbnÞúk
eRKOgbgÁúMGaKarRtUvEtKNnaeGaymanlT§PaBRKb;RKan;edIm,I RTRTg;GaKaredayKμankarxUcxat
RTg;RTayhYsBIkarkMNt; b¤karxUcxaténkarrYmbBa©ÚlKña rbs;bnÞúkEdlniwgbegáIteGaymanT§iBlminl¥. kar
b:HBal;kñúgkrNIEbbenHrYmman Twkdk;elIdMbUl dIEq¥t smuRTdI nig karpøas;bþÚrTMhM. kñúgkarkMNt;lT§PaB
RTRTg;rbs;eRKOgbgÁúMmYy emKuNsuvtßiPaBsMPar³sMNg; nigkarKNnaminc,as;las;nuvlT§PaBRTRTg;RtUvEt
ykmkKitBicarNaEdr.
esovePAGaKarKMrU (Building Codes) GnuBaØatieGayeyIgeRbInUvrebobKNnaBIr Allowable- Stress
Design b¤ Load and Resistance factor Design enAkñúgkarsagsg;GaKar. kñúgviFIKNnaedayKuNbnÞúk (Service

Loads) nig emKuNsuvtßiPaB. emKuNsuvtßiPaBepSg² RtUv)aneKykeRbICamYynwgbnÞúkedayeyagelIPaBmin

BitR)akdkñúgkarKNnabnÞúk.
kñúgkarKNna Stress GnuBaØati (Allowable-Stress Design) lT§PaBEdlGacRTRTg;rbs;vaCaFmμta
RtUvkMNt;edaybnÞúkEdlnaMeGaymankareRbH b¤kMhUcRTg;RTayrbs;vaCaFmμtaRtUvkMNt;edaybnÞúkefr Live
Wind, Seismic, Snow nigbnÞúkepSg²eTot EdlGacekItmaneLIgkñgeBlEtmYyRtUveKbnÞúkrYmEdlRtUveK yk
ú
mkeRbIkñúgkarKNna Stress GnuBaØati (Allowable- Stress Design) KW
1. D + L + (Lr or S or R)
2. D + L + (W or E/1.4)
3. D + L + W + S/2
4. D + L + S+ W/2
5. D + L + S + E/1.4
6. 0.9 – E/1.4
D ³CabnÞúkefr (Dead Load)
L ³ Liveloads ekItmkBIeKalbMNgénkareRbIR)as;rbs;GaKarrYmbBa©ÚlTaMgkarEbgEckCabnþbnÞab; nig

karsñak;enA.
Lr ³ Roof Liveloads

S ³ Snow Loads

R ³ Rain Loads



³
W Wind Load

E ³ Seismic Load

Building Codes CaFmμtaGnuBaØatieGayeRbIemKuNtUc eBlEdlkar):an;sμanénkarekIteLIg énbnÞúkFM

sMebImrYmKñaenHmankMrittUc tYy:agdUcCa³ karrYmbBa©ÚlKñarvag Dead Load Gtibrma Liveload nigGtibrmarbs;
kMlaMgxül;bk; rWrBa¢ÜydI. ]TahrN_ CaTUeTAemKuNEdlmantMél 0>75 RtUveKeRbIsMrab;KNnaplbUkbnÞúkrYm
kñúgrUbmnþBI ¬2¦ dl;¬6¦ . emKuNRbePTenHGnuBaØatieGayÉkta én Stress GnuBaØati (Allowable Unit Stress)
sMrab;eRbIkñúglkçx½NÐbnÞúkenH FMCagkarKNnabnÞúkrYmtamrUbmnþ ¬1¦. Stress GnuBaØatiRtUveKKNnaRTg;RTay
hYsBIkarkMNt;EckCamYyemKuNsuvtßiPaBEdlmantMélFMCag 1.
enAkñúgkarKNna emKuNbnÞúk nig PaBFn;RbePTbnÞúkepSgKñanimYy² RtUvKuNnwgemKuNbnÞúkrbs;va
ehIytMélRtUv)aneKkMNt;eTAtamkat):an;sμanénPaBEdlGacekIteLIgénRbePTbnÞúknimYy²enaH. emKuN
bnÞúkRtUveKKitbBa©ÚledIm,IeGayRbB½n§nig eRKOgbgÁúTaMgmUlGacRTRTg; nwgbnÞúkTaMgGs;)an. eRKOgbgÁúM
M
RtUv)aneKKNnaeGaylT§PaBRTRTg;bnÞúkrbs;vaFMCaglT§PaBRTRTg;bnÞúksrub. TMhMénlT§PaBRTRTg;enH KW
RtUvKNnaedayKuN The Ultimate- Load Capacity nigemKuNPaBCab; (Resistance factor) EdltMélrbs;va
pþl;eGaynUvkareCOCak;énkar):an;sμanrbs;lT§PaBRTRTg;mYy.
lkçN³vinicä½yRtUv)aneKeRbICaTUeTAdUcxageRkam³
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D+1.6L+0.5( Lr or S or R)
3. 1.2D+1.6(Lr or S or R)+(0.5L or 0.8W)
4. 1.2D+1.3W+0.5(Lr or S or R)
5. 1.2D+1.0E+(0.5L or 0.2S)
6. 0.9D6 (1.3W or 1.0E)
sMrab;yandæankEnøgRbCuMCn nigkEnøgEdl liveloads elIsBI 100 lb/ft emKuNbnÞúkCaFmμta RtUveKyk
tMélÉktasMrab; L enAkñúgrUbmnþ 3/4 nig 5. sMrab;dMbUlEdlRBilGackkenAelIemKuNbnÞúkKYrEtmantMél
0>7sMrab; Snowload kñúgrUbmnþ ¬5¦.
sMrab;karKNna Stress GnuBaØati (Allowable Stress Design) nig kMlaMg (Strength) eRKOgbgÁMúnig
smasPaBrbs;vaKYrEtRtUveKKNnaedIm,ITb;Tl;KYrEtmantMél 0>7 sMrab; Snow Load kñúgrUbmnþ¬5¦.
sMrab;karKNna Stress GnuBaØati (Allowable Stress Design) nig kMlaMg (Strength) eRKOgbgÁMúnig
smasPaBrbs;vaKYrEtRtUveKKNnaedIm,ITb;Tl;nig kMlaMgBiessEdlekItLIgBIkarrMBa¢ÜydI.
a. 1.2 D+0.5L+Em
b. 0.9D-Em

Construction General - 10 -


sMrab;kMralx½NÐenATIRbCuMsaFarN³sMrab; Liveload EdlelIsBI 100psf nigsMrab;bnÞúkéncMNtrfynþ
emKuNbnÞúkRtUvmantMél 1>0 sMrab; L Em KWCakMlaMgGtibrma tamTisedk nigQr.
2> Stress and Strain
KWCaTMhMmYyEdleRbIkñúgkarvas;lT§PaBRTRTg;ral;skþanuBl
Structural Capacity or Ultimate Strength

énbnÞúkedayKμaneFVIeGayeRbH rWxUcRTRTg;F¶n;F¶rdl;GaKar. edIm,Icg¥úlbgðajnUvcMnYnkMNt;énbnÞúkGtibrma
EdleRKOgbgÁúMGacRTaMRT)an tMrUvé`nkarKNna (Design Specifications) sMrab;eRKOgbgÁMúnana RtUv)aneKbegáIt
kñúgenaHmanÉktþa Stresses GnuBaØati (Allowable Unit Stress) rW Design Strengths EdlmanTMhM rbs;vaminGac
elIsBIbnÞúkGtibrmaeLIy. RTwsþIéneKOgbgÁúM (Structural Theory) pþl;nUvviFIsa®sþsMrab;KNna Unit Stress nig
sMrab;):an;sμanPaBxUcRTg;RTay. viFIsa®sþTaMgenHnwgRtUveKelIkykmkbgðajkñúgEpñkteTAenH.
2>1 Static Equilibrium
ebIeRKOgbgÁúMnig smasPaBrbs;vaGacRTRTg;nwgbnÞúk bnÞab;BImankarxUcRTRTg;bnþicbnþÜcekItmaneLIg
ehIyKμankarxUcbnþeTot BYkvaRtUvekcat;famantulüPaB (Equilibrium) .
eRkamRBwtþikarN_EbbenH kMlaMgkñúg rW Stresses Tb;Tl;y:agBitR)akdeTAnwgbnÞúk.
karsnñidænd¾mansar³sMxan;mYycMnYn RtUv)aneKTajecjBIlkçN³én Static equilibrium edayKμankar
ERbRbYl plbUkénkMlaMgxageRkATaMgGs;esμIsUnü ehIyedayKμankarvil plbUkénm:Um:g; (Moment) EdlekIt
elIgedaykMlaMgxageRkAenARtg;cMnucNamYyesμIsUnü.
sMrab;mUlehtudUcKña ebIeyIgykEpñkNamYyéneRKOgbgÁúMehIyeRbIbnÞúkelIva plbUkénkMlaMgeRkA nig
kñúgenAelIEpñkmYyenaH KWR)akdCasUnü. plbUkén Moment rbs;kMlaMgTaMgGs;k¾esμIsUnüEdr.
CaTUeTAvamanPaBgayRsYlkñúgkarEvkEjkkMlaMg EdlmanGMeBIelIeRKOgbgÁúMeTACasmasPaBkMlaMg
tUc² EdlRsbeTAtamG½kSEkKñamYy dUcenHehIyvaeFVIeGaymanPaBgayRsYlkñúgkarKNna.
]TahrN_ sMrab;kMlaMgEdlmanGMeBIelIbøg;mYykrNI EdleKCYbRbTHRsYlbMputenaHKW bMElgkMlaMg
TaMgGs;eGayRsbtamG½kSGab;sIus nig G½kSGredaen (Vertical) . sMrab;eRKOgbgÁúMEdlmantulüPaB
(Structure in Equilibrium) ebI H tMNageGaykMlaMgtamTwsedk V kMlaMgtamTisQr nig M Ca Moment

énkMlaMgEdl sßitenAcMNucNamYyénbøg;/ ΣH = 0 ΣV = 0 nig ΣM = 0 .



smIkarTaMgbIxagelIenHRtUv)aneKeRbIedIm,IKNnaGBaØti3 enAkñúg nonconcurrent coplanar force

system.

2>2 Unit Stress and Strain
edIm,IeFVIeGaydwgBitR)akdfaetI eRKOgbgÁúMmanlT§plGacRTRTg;bnÞúk)an GñkKNnaCaTUeTARtUvEt
KNna Maximum Unit Stress EdlekIteLIgedaykarkMNt;bnÞúkkñúgeRKOgbgÁúMsMrab;RbePTkMlaMgkññúg kMlaMg
Taj kMlaMgsgát; rWkMlaMgkkit ehIyeRbobeFobfaetInwg Allowable Unit Stress .
enAeBlEdlkarbnÞúkdecñH Unit stress KWefrenAelIEpñkNamYyéneRKOgbgÁúMEdleKykmkeRbIelI
Stress RtUvKNnaedayEckkMlaMgnwg épÞmuxkat. b:uEnþCaTUeTA Unit stress ERbRbYlBImYyeTAmYy. kñúgkrNIenH

Unit stress EdlzitenAcMnucNamYyénmuxkat; KWCatMélkMNt;énpleFobrvagkMlaMgkñúgelIépÞtUcNamYy nig

RklaépÞEdlvaRtUveKyktUceTA². CYnkalkñúgkarKNnaeRKOgbgÁúM Unit stress GacminEmnCacMnuccMbgEdleK
ykmkKiteT.
GñkKNnaGaccab;GarmμN_eTAelITMhMkMNt;mYyénkarxUcRTg;RTay rW Strain . kMhUcRTg;RTayeTAtam
TisedANamYy KWCakarpøas;bþÚrTaMgRsugénTMhMrbs;eRKOgbgÁúMtamTisenaH.
Unit strain eTAtamTisedANamYy KW karxUcRTg;RTaykñúgÉktþaRbEvgtamTisenaH.

enAeBlEdlbnÞúkdak;dUcenH Unit strain KWefr kñugEpñkmYyéneRKOgbgÁúMvaGacRtUveKKNnaedayEck
RbEvgénkMhUcRTg;RTayCamYyRbEvgedImrbs;va. b:uEnþCaTUeTA Unitstress ERbRbYlén Unitstress tMNagnUv
tMélkMNt;énpleFobmYy.
2>3 Hooke’s Law
sMrab;sMPar³sMNg;CaeRcIn Unit strain KWsmamaRteTAnwg Unit stress, Until a certain stress, The
proportional limit is exceeded. Hooke’s Law RtUveKsÁal;tamTMnak;TMngEdlGacsesrdUcxageRkam³

rW
Edl
f = Unit Stress
= Unit Strain
E= Modulus of elasticity



dUecñHenAeBlEdl Unit stress nig Modulus of elasticity RtUveKsÁal; Unit strain RtUv)aneKsÁal;tMél
Unit stress GacnwgRtUveKKNna)an.

enAeBlEdleRKOgbgÁúMmYyRtUvrgnUvbnÞúk ehIy Unit stress minelIsBI Proportional Limit eRKOgbgÁúMnig
RtLb;eTAPaBedImvijenAeBlEdlbnÞúkRtUv)aneKdkecj. The elastic limit KWCa Unit stress FMbMputEdlGac
ekItmaneLIgedayKμankMhUcRTg;RTayCaGcié®nþy_bnSl;TukbnÞab;BIdkbnÞúkecj. sMPar³sMNg;xøHman 1 rW2
Yield Pont . TMhMTaMgenaHKWCa Unit stress enAkñúgkEnøgEdlmankarelceLIgnUvkMenInén Strain edayKμankar

ekIneLIg b¤fycuHbnþicbnþÜcén Stress . dUcenHsMPar³sMNg;bgðajnUvPaByWtrbs;va. sMrab;sMPar³sMNg;
EdlKμankarkMNt; Yield Point c,as;las; The offset yield strength RtUveKeRbICargVas;énPaByWtdMbUg ( The
beginning of plastic deformation) .

2>4 Constant Unit Stress
krNIEdlsamBaØén Stess nig Strain KWCakrNIEdlkñúgenaH Unitstress nig Strain efr. ]TahrN_³
Stress EdlekIteLIgedaykMlaMgTaj rWsgát; rW Shearing Force rW bnÞúkEdleRbImþgmáal. lkçN³énkardak;

bnÞúkTaMgenHRtUveKbgðajenAkñúgrUb Figure 11 . sMrab;kMlaMgTaj nig sgát;cMG½kS eyIgyképÞmuxkat;EdlEkg
eTAnwgG½kSkNþal nig EkgeTAnwgkMlaMgsgát;. sMrab; Shearing Load épÞmuxkat;EdlzitenAkñúgbøg;kat;RtUveK
ykmkKNna. ehIysMrab; bearing load vaRtUveRCIserIsykbøg;b:HéneRKOgbgÁúMTaMgBIr.



rUb1-1 lkNrbs;bnÞk

2>5 Poisson’s Ratio
enAkñúg elastic limit enAeBlEdleRKOgbgÁúMmYyrgnUvkMlaMgsgát;cMG½kSvaminRtwmEteFVIeGayxUc
RTg;RTaytamépÞbeNþayEtb:ueNÑaHeT EtvaEfmTaMgeFVIeGayxUcRTg;RTaytamépÞTTwgpgEdr. enAeRkam
kMlaMgTaj (Tension) épÞénmuxkat;rbs;eRKOgKWfycuH ehIyenAeRkamkMlaMgsgát; (Compression) vaekIneLIg
pleFobén Unit Lateral strain nwg Unit longitudinal strain RtUEtehAfa Poisson’s ratio .
sMrab;sMPar³sMNg;CaeRcInpleFobenHRtUveKyktMélesμI 0>25. sMrab;eRKOgbgÁúMEdktMélrbs;va RtUveKsnμt
yk 0>3 .



]TahrN_ snμtfaEdkBüÜrmYyEdlmanépÞ 2in2 BüÜrTMgn; 40 Kip (40.000-1b) load . The Unit stress KW
40>000¼2 rW 20>000PSI Unit tensil strain KW 20>000¼30>000>000 rW 0>00067 in/ in . edayyk
Poisson’s Ration esμI 0>3 Unit lateral strain KW -0>3 x 0>00067 rW a shortening of 0>00020 in/ in .

CMBUkII ³
dI nig RKwH
Soil and foundation
3

1> esckþIepþIm
1>1 emkanicdI
emkanicdI KWRtUveKkMnt;edaykarGnuvtþn_ énc,ab; nigeKalkarN_rbs;emkanic nigTwkenAkñúgkaredaH
RsaybBaðaCamYydIEdleKcat;TukCasmÖar³visVkmμ. dImanlkçN³eRcInRbePTepSg²Kña edayEp¥keTAelIkar
sikSa. ]TahrN_kñúgekSRtviTüa (agronomy) ¬karGnuvtþn_viC¢adaMdMNaM¦dIKW RtUveKkMNt;faCakMNkénrUbFatuEr:
EdlmankMeNItmkBIsMNwkfμ nigrUbFatuxniCEdlRbmUlpþúMKña eRkayBIkarrlYyénrukçCati nigstV. sMrab;Gñk
ekSRtviTüa (agronomist) dIKWCasarFatuEdlpþl;GMbilxniCedIm,IciBa©wmkarrIklUtlas;énrukçCati. b:uEnþsMrab;
visVkrEpñkdI (geotechnical engineer) dImann½yTUlMTUlayehIyGacrab;bBa©ÚlminRtwmEt agronomic material
b:uEnþvarab;bBa©ÚlpgEdrnUv sMNwkfμ epHPñMePøIg dIl,ab; lannin sand glacial material nig sMNl;epSgénkarswk
rbs;fμ.
tamFmμCativamankarlM)akkñúgkarrkbnÞat;EbgEckmYyrvagfμ nigdI. ]TahrN_sMrab;PUKBðviTU
(geologist) sarFatumYyRtUv)aneKdak;cMNat;fñak;eTAtamkMNkMeNIténfμBIeRBaHvasßitenAeRkamsßanPaBPUKBð

d¾Cak;lak;mYy b:uEnþsMrab;visVkrdIvaKYrEtRtUveKcat;cUlcMNat;fñak;dI.



1>2 visVkmμRKwH (Foundation Engineering)
RKwHRtUveKkMNt;faCaEpñkmYyén eRKOgbgÁúMEdlRTRTg;Tm¶n;rbs;eRKOgbgÁúMehIy bBa¢ÚnbnÞúkeTARsTab;
dIrW fμenAxageRkam. kñúgvisVkmμRKwH (Foundation Engineering) .emkanicdI emkanicfμ PUmivTüa nigvisμkmμeRKOg
bgÁúM tUveKeRbIkñúgkarKNna nigsagsg;RKwHGaKar rWeRKOg bgÁúM. mUldæanRKwHrbs; Foundation Engineering
KWkareRCIserIsRbePTénRKwH EdlmandUcCaRbBn½§énRKwHrak; (Shallow Foundation) rWRKwHeRCA (Deep
Foundation).

mUldæanRKwHmYyeTotén Foundation Engineering KWTak;TgeTAnwgkarKNna Parameter dUcCaliT§PaB
RTRTg;rbs;RKwHEdlmandUcCa karkMnt;RbePT nigcenøaHEdksréskñúgeCIgtag.
2> karsikSaRsavRCavelIkardæanpÞal; (field exploitation)
eKalbMNgénkarsikSaRsavRCavelIkardæanpÞal; KWedIm,Icg;dwgnUvcMnucxageRkam³
1> karyl;dwgGMBIsßanPaBPUmisa®sþTUeTAénkardæan edaysarvaCHT§iBleTAelIkarKNna nigsag
sg;RKwH. ]TahrN_ sßanPaBrbs;épÞdIPaBs¥itrbs;dI RbPBTwkRtBaMgrbg; rukçCati rock outcrops nigkarGac
ecjcUl)anénrfynþdwk smÖar³sMNg;.
2> TItaMgénkEnøgbgáb;]bkrN_eRbIR)as;dUcCa ExSkabGKiÁsnInigTUrs½BÞRbBn§½Twk nigRbBn½§lU.
3> lkçN³TUeTArbs;PUBsa®sþénRkLaépÞ CamYynwgkarkt;sMKal;nUvkarkekIténRsTab;dI nig sRmut
dIBIkarviPaKelIRbePTdI rWkrNIepSgeTot.
4> Rbvtþinig kareRbIR)as;kardæanrYmman Bt’manénkarxUcxat b¤)ak;Ebkrbs;sMNg;cas;² EdlbNþal
mkelIRKwH.
5> lkçN³BiessepSg²dUcCa PaBGacekIteLIgénkarrBa¢ÜydI rWkarpøas;bþÚrénktþaFmμCatimandUcCa
TwkCMnn; karrIkb¤rYmtamrdUvkMnt;nigdIsmñwk.
6> RbPBnigKuNPaBrbs;sMPar³ sMNg;enAkñúgRsukmandUcCaRKYssMrab;eFVIebtugfμsMrab;eFVIGaKar b¤pøÚv
nigTwksMrab;karsagsg;.
7> sMrab;sMNg;Tak;Tgnig smuRT b¤TenøBt’manelIkMriteCarnac nigkMBs;Twkel,ÓnéncrnþeCarnac nig
crnþTenønigTinñn½y EdlTak;TgeTAnwg Hydrographic nig meteorological.



8> karkt;RtaTuky:aglMGiténsßanPaBBIr b¤fμI niglkçN³TwkeRkamdIEdlenAkñúgtMbn;EdlGacman
T§iBleTAelIlT§PaBRTRTg;rbs;RKwH nigRbtibtþikarN_énkarsagsg;rW karCIkeRCAénRsTab;dIEdlGacCH
T§iBleTAelIkardæankñúgkrNINamYy.
9> lT§iplénkareFVIBiesaFn_elIsMNakdIb¤ fμEdlRtUvnwgkarnwgkarKNna b¤sagsg;.
2>1 karsikSaelIÉksar (document Review)
Bt’manEdlRtUvkarcaM)ac;xøH² mandUcCaRbvtþiénkareRbIR)as;kardæanRtUveK)anmkBIkarsikSaelI
Éksar.]TahrN_manr)aykarN_cas;² GMBI lanning Edlcg¥úlbgðajfa kardæanGacCakMNk dIRbBn½§bgðÚrTwk
s¥úyEdleKe)aHbg;ecalnig GageRcaH GagsþúkTwkkb;kñúgdIelI b¤eRkamEdlGacb:HBal;dl; KMeragGPivDÆn_ fμI².
vaGacmanpgEdrnUvBt’manEdlTak;TgeTAnwg kareRbIR)as;elInwgeRkamdIénbMBg;Twk Edl RtUvEtCIkdak; b¤bit
KMrbenAkñúgbrievnénkardæan.
kñúgkarsikSaelIÉksarenH vamansar³sMxan;Nas;edIm,IBinitüsMPar³KMrU (reference materials)
dUcCaEpnTI PUKBðsa®sþ nigEpnTIPUmisa®sþ. EpnTIPUKBðsa®sþvamansar³sMxan;Nas;BIeRBaHvaEtgEtcg¥úl
bgðajnUv eRKaHfñak;énPUKBðsa®sþ ¬]TahrN_karxUcdI)ak;¦ nigRbePTénRsTab;dI b¤fμenAelIkardæan.

TaMgEpnTIPUmisa®sþcas;nig fIμ Gacpþl;nUvBt’mand¾mantMélGMBIkardæansagsg;. EpnTIPUmisa®sþCa
FmμtaRtUveKeRbImaRtdæan ehIybgðajTItaMgénGaKar pøÚv pøÚvCati pøÚvEdk nig kargarepSgeTotEdlTak;TgeTA
nwgsMNg;suIvil nigTidæPaBFmμCatiEdlmandUcCa eRCaH Tenø bwg qksmuRTnig eqñrsmuRT.
EpnTIPUmisa®sþGacg¥úlbgðajpgEdr nUvkEnøgénGagcg¥ÚrTwks¥úy nigGagsþúkTwk ehIyedayeRbIBN’
nig Rsemalvacg¥úlbgðajnUvkarGPivDÆn_cas; nigfμI. b:uEnþeKalbMNgsMxan;énEpnTIPUmisaRsþKWedIm,I
cg¥úlbgðajnUvnIvUdI. Bt’manenHGacRtUveKeRbIsMrab;KNna TidæPaBcMbgénsßanPaBPUmisa®sþ rbs;kardæan
nigsMrab;karsikSaBIRsTab;eRkamdI EdlmandUcCaRsTab;dIEdlGaceFVIeGayvakarvaybBa©úHRKwH RbRBitþieTA )an.
RbPBd¾sMxan;mYyeToténBt’man KWrUbPaBftBIelIGakas (aerial photographs) EdlRtUveKftBIelI
ynþehaHEdlehaHenAkMBs; nigExSbnÞat;EdleKkMNt;mYy. emIlrUbftBIelIGakasBIrCamYynwg CMnYyén
Stereoscope vapþl;nUvrUbPaB 3D énsßanPaBépÞdI. rUbPaBenHGacbgðajnUvBt’man sMxan;énPUKBðsa®sþrbs;

kardæandUcCavtþmanéndI)ak; RcaMg)ak; RbePTénTMrg;dI ¬]TahrN_pñÚkxSac;¦ (alluvial fans) dIl,ab;kMNk én
Twkkk (moraines) nig (eskers) PaBsikricrilRbePTTUeTAnig lkçN³rbs;rukçCati nigKMrUénbNþajbeNþaHTwk


. edayeRbobeFobrUbPaBBIelIGakascas; nig fμIPUKBðviTUGacsegátpgEdrnUvkarpøas;bþÚr
(drainage patterns)

edayFmμCati b¤mnusSEdl)anekIteLIgenAelIkardæan.
2>2 karsikSaRsavRCavépÞeRkamdI (Subsurface Exploration )
edIm,IkMNt;nUvkarkt;RtalMGiténdI nigRsTab;fμ niglkçN³énTwkeRkamdInUvkardæan karsikSaRsavRCav
épÞeRkamdI KWCanic©CakalRtUveKelIkykmksikSa. manRbePTepSg² KñaénkarsikSaRsavRCavépÞeRkamdI
dUcCa karxYg (borings) reNþABiesaFn_ (test pits) nigkarCIkcg¥ÚrCaedIm.
karxYgeFVIeLIgedayeRbIbMBg;ragsuILaMg xYgcUlkñúgdI kñúgeKalbMNgsikSaBIlkçN³rbs;RsTab;dIxag
eRkamkarBiesaFn_enAelIkardæanpÞal; nigykdIfμI rWk¾TwkeRkamdIsMrab;eFVIBiesaFn_. reNþAxYgGacRtUveKCIkeday
éd¬]TahrN_³ CIkedaycbCIk¦ eTaHbIkñúgkarCIkFmμtaeKRtUveRbI mechanical equipment edIm,ICIkreNþA
k¾eday. eRKOgcRkeRcInRbePTRtUveKeRbIedIm,IxYgreNþA.
Auger Boring: Mechanical Auger KWCarebobCIkreNþAy:agelOn. reNþARtUveKCIkedayEdkxYgeday

eRbIsMBaFbukEdkxYgCYykñúgkarTemøaHdI rWfμ.
CaTUeTAmanEdkxYgBIrRbePT KW Flight auger nig bucket augers. CaFmμtaGgát;p©itrbs; flight KW 5cm-
12cm (2in eTA 4ft) ehIyrbs; bucket augers KW 0.3m eTA 2.4m (1ft eTA 8ft) . EdkxYgRtUveKdkecjBIreNþA

kñúgry³eBleTogTat;NamYy TnÞwmnigeBlenaHEdr dIEdlsßitenAelI Flight auger rWenAkñúg bucket auger RtUveK
ykecj.
Casing CaTUeTAKW eKmineRbIsMrab; auger boring eT ehIyreNþAxYgGacRsutkñúgeBldIRtesaH rWdITn;

rWxYgRsTab;dIenAeRkamTwk. auger KWCa]bkrN_sMrab;xYgEdlCaTUeTARtUveKeRbIsMrab;xYgdI rWfμ.
Hollow-stem flight auger; A hollow-stem flight auger manRbehagragmUlcMkNþalEdkxYgEdl

GnuBaØatieGayeyIgyksMNak;dIxageRkam)an. Hollow-stem flight auger KwdUcCaRbGb;sMrab;sMNak;dI
RtesaH b¤dITn; b¤enAeBlxYgdIeRkamRsTab;TwkeRkamdI.
Wash-type Borings eRbIdMeNIrkarrbs;GgÁFaturav EdlGacnaMykkMeTckMTIdIeGayecjBIreNþA)an.

kMeTcdIekItmkBIkarkab; mYl nigbukrbs;EdkxYg (drill bit) EdlkMTicdI b¤fμeTACabMENktUc². Casing RtUveK
eRbIedIm,IkuMeGaymankar)ak;RsutreNþAxYg.
edaysar drilling fluid ¬GgÁFaturav¦ EdleRbIkñúgeBlxYgvaGaceFVIeGaylM)ak;kñúgkarkMNat;dI nig
lM)akkñúgTTYl)an sMNak;EdlminxUcRTg;RTay.


Rotary Coring KWCa]bkrN_xYgmYyRbePTEdleKeRbIfamBlrgVilénEdkxYgeGaydUcCaclnarbs;
GgÁFaturavedIm,IRbmUlykkMeTcdIecjBIrn§.
Percussion Drilling KWCa]bkrN_xYgmYyRbePTEdleKeRbIsMrab;xYgmYyRbePTEdleKeRbIsMrab;xYgTmøúH

fμrwgedIm,IEsVgyl;BIRsTab;dIxageRkam b¤edIm,IkarxYgGNþÚg. EdkxYgeFVIkardUcCadgjjÜreLIg ehIycuHedIm,I
bMEbknigkMeTcfμ.
elIsBIkarxYgenHmanviFIepSgeTot sMrab;karEsVgyl;BIRsTab;dIrYmbBa©ÚlTaMg Test pits nig trenches .
Test Pits CaerOy² KWmanragCakaer:kñúgbøg;KMehIjCamYynwgTMhMRbePT 1.2 x 1.2 m (4ft KuNnwg 4ft) .

Trenches manragEvg nigceg¥ótCaFmμtakayeday backhoe b¤ bulldozer.

tarag 6>4 bgðajBIkareRbIR)as; smtßPaBnig TMhMkMNt;rbs; test pits nig trenches.
Test Pit nig trenches pþl;nUvkarRtYtBinitüedayEPñkTeT nUvlkçxNÐénRsTab;dIxageRkam. eKk¾Gac

eRbIedIm,ITTYlnUvsMNakKMrU undisturbed éndIpgEdr. dMeNIrenHmanCIkkaydIBIxag b¤)atén Test pit b¤ trench
sMNakKMrUdI k¾GacTTYl)anBI Test pit b¤ trenches edaykarduMsgát;bBa©ÚledayédnUvbMBg; shelby, drive suILaMg
b¤bMBg;sMNakKMrUepSgeTotcUleTAkñúgdI.
Backhoe trenchesKWCaviFId¾snSMsMécénkarGnuvtþn_nUvkarRsavRCavBIRsTab;dIxageRkam. backhoe Gac

CIky:agelOnnUv trench EdlGacbnÞab;mkRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IRtYtBinitü nigBiesaFn_dIenAnwgkEnøg. sMrab;kar
sikSaRsavRCavRsTab;dIxageRkamCaeRcIn backheo trench RtUv)aneRbIedIm,IvaytMéllkçxNÐ near- surface nig
PUmisa®sþ ¬]TahrN_rhUtCMerA 15ft¦ edayreNþAxYgEdl)aneRbIsMrab;GegátlkçxNÐRsTab;dIxageRkameRCA
CagenH.
2>3 sMNakKMrUdI Soil Sampling
RbePTepSgKñaCaeRcInén KMrUdIGacRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IeFVICasMNakKMrUdI b¤fμEdl)anBIkarxYg.
1> Altered Soil: kñúgGMLúgeBlRbtibtþikarxYg dIGacRtUv)aneFVIeGayxusBIsPaBedImedaysar
karlay b¤edaysarkareFVI[kxVk;. ]TahrN_ RbsinebIkarxYgmin)anlagsMGatecjedIm,IeFVIsMNakKMrU enaH
sMNakKMrUdI EdlykecjBI)atGNþÚgxYgBitR)akdGacmansarFatukMeTckMTI (cutting) EdlRCuHBIRCugmçagén
GNþÚgxYg. kMTickMTIénGNþÚgxYgenH EdlRCuHFøak;eTA)atGNþÚgxYg nigminman vtþmansMrab;lkçxNÐenAnwg
kEnøg énsMNakKMrUEdlmanCMerAeRCA. kñúgkrNIepSgeTot sMNakKMrUdIGackøayCakxVk;eday sarGgÁFaturav
énkarxYg EdleRbIsMrab; Wash-type boring. sMNakKMrUvdIRbePTenH EdlRtUv)anlay b¤eFVI[kxVk;edaysar


dMeNIrkarénkarxYgKYrminRtUv)aneRbIsMrab; karBiesaFn_eTeRBaHvanwgnaMmknUvkarsnñidæan xuscMeBaHlkçxNÐ
énRsTab;eRkamdI.
dIEdlpøas;bþÚrsMeNImkñúgedaysarGgÁFaturavénkarxYg b¤kMedAénm:asuInePøIgkñúgGMLúgéndMeNIrkar én
karxYgk¾KYrRtUv)ancat;cUlkñúglMdab; altered soil. dIEdlRtUv)ansgát;bEnñneday over pushing b¤ over driving
KWCasMNakKMrUdIEdl k¾Gacat;Ca altered soil EdredaysarEtdMeNIrkarén over-pushing b¤ over –driving Gac
sgát;Twk[ecjBIdI.
2> Disturbed samples: disturbed soil KWCadIEdlRtUvcak;Bum<eLIgvijkñúgGMLúgdMeNIrkareFVI
sMNakKMrUdI. ]TahrN_ dIEdlTTYl)anBIsMNakKMrUEdlduMbBa©Úl (driven sampler) dUcCasMNakKMrUEdlbgðÚr
edaysøabRBaBIkarBiesaFn_sgát;TMluHCabTdæan (standard penetration test spilt spoon sampler) b¤duMdITaMgmUl²
Edlykmkkan;épÞdIenAkñúgRtebotEdkxYg ¬]TahrN_duMsMNakKMrU¦ Gaccat;TukCa disturbed soil. Disturbed
soil GacRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;BiesaFn_)aneRcInRbePT.

3> Undisturbed sample: eKTTYlsÁal;faKμansMNakKMrUdINaEdlGacykecjBIdIedaysßan-
PaBminxUcRTg;RTaytex©aHenaHeT. eTaHbICay:agNa Bakübec©keTsenHGaceRbIsMrab;sMNakKMrUdIEdlyk
edayviFId¾BitR)akd. sMNakKMrUdI Undisturbed sample CaerOy² KWCasMNakKMrUEdlTTYl)anedaykarruj
sgát;yWt² bMBg;EdlmanCBa¢aMgy:agesþIg ehIymancugkat;muxRsYc nigelonecjeRkAcUleTAkñúgdI. ):ar:aEm:Rt
2 CaerOy² RtUv)aneRbIedIm,IvaytMélBI disturbance potential énsMNakKMrUepSgKña KWCapleFobRbeLaHxag
kñúg nigpleFobépÞRkla.
CaTUeTAbMBg;sMNakKMrUsMrab;sMNak undisturbed soil KYrRtUvmanpleFobRbeLaHxagkñúgRbEhl1°
nig pleFobRklaépÞRbEhl 10° b¤ticCagenH. karykpleFobRbelaHxagkñúgRbEhl 1°
edIm,Ipþl;[ PaBlanecjeRkAxagkMBUlénsMNakKMrUdI nigkat;bnßyPaBkkitrvag dI nig
bMBg;sMNakKMrUkñúgGMLúgeBlén dMeNIrkareFVIsMNakKMrU.
RsTab;eRbgy:agesþIgGacRtUv)anlabenAelICaymuxkaMbitedIm,Ikat;bnßypgEdr nUvPaB kkiténépÞdI
nigbMBg;EdkkñúgGMLúgdMeNIrkareFVIsMNakKMrUBum<. eKalbMNgénkarmanpleFob énépÞ Rklad¾Tab nig
cugkaMbitRsYcKWedIm,IrMkilcUleTAkñúgdICamYynwgkarraMgsÞH nigPaBbMlas;TItictYcEdlGacekIt mantictYc
cMeBaHdI. bMBg; shelby KWRtUv)anplitedIm,I[RsbeTAtamrsovePAlMGitbec©keTs (specification) nwgRtUv)an
eRbIsMrab;sMNakKMrUdI undisturbed soil samplers .


ktþaepSgeTot CaeRcInk¾GacbNþaleGaydIRtUv)anraMgsÞ³dUcCa ³
• duMRKYsrwg b¤ cMENksMbkxügenAkñúgdI EdlGacbegáInrn§es<atenAtamxagénbMBg;sMNakKMrUkñúgGMLúg

dMeNIrkareFVIsMNakKMrU.
• karxUcxatrcnasm<½n§dIEdlbNþalmkBIkarduMjjÜr b¤rujsgát;bMBg;sMNakBum<eTAkñúgRsTab;dI.

• cMhayPayén]sμ½nkñúgGMLúgkardkykmkvijnUvbMBg;sMNakKMrU.

• kareFVIeGaykeRkIk b¤karb:HTgÁicénbMBg;sMNakKMrU kñúgGMLúgeBldwkCBa¢ÚneTAkan;bnÞb;BiesaFn_.

• kardkyksMNakdIedayrdwbrdubBIbMBg;sMNakKMrU.

• karkat;tMrwmy:ageFVsRbEhseTAtamTMhMCak;lak;sMrab;karBiesaFan_enAkñúgbnÞb;BiesaFn_.

ral;skmμPaBEdl)anerobrab;xagelIGackat;bnßyRbsiT§iPaB Stress karkat;bnßysMrab;PaBs¥itén
GnþrRKab; nigkartMerobeLIgvijénRKab;dI. sMNakKMrUdI “undisturbed” nwgGacRtUv)antMerobeLIgvijnUvRKab;dI
y:agtictYc nigGacKμankarxUcxatelIkElgEtbNþalmkBI stress relief Edlmankarpøas;bþÚrBIlkçxNÐ stress
enAnwgkEnøgeTAlkçxNÐ stress isotropic “sMNakKMrUtex©aH” . sMNakKMrUdI disturbed Gacmanrcnasm<½n§dI
EdlxUcRTg;RTayCamYynwg kartMerobRKab;dIesÞIrEtTaMgGs;. enAeBlvas;rkPaBFn;énkMlaMgkat;pþac; (shear
strength ) b¤lkçN³xUcxatRTg;RTayéndI lT§plénkarBiesaFn_cMeBaHsMNakKMrUdI undisturbed Edl)anerob

rab;xagelI)anbgðajBIlkçN³énsßanPaBenAnwgkEnøg RbesIrCaglT§plBiesaFn_cMeBaHsMNakKMrUdI disturbed
ehIyKMrUEdl)anykecjBIrn§GNþÚgxYgKYrrkSaTukenAkñúgbMBg;sMNakKMrU b¤kgsMNakKMrU. bMBg;sMNakKMrUKYr
eRsaby:agCitcugrn§Rbehag b¤kgsMNakKMrUKYreRsaby:agsBV enAkñúgRbGb;edIm,IkarBar kar)at;bg;sMeNIm
kñúgGMLúgénkardwkCBa¢ÚneTAkan;bnÞb;BiesaFn_. sMNakKMrUvdIKYrRtUv)ankt;cMNaMCamYyÉksar b¤elxKMerag
kalbriecäTénkaryksMNakKMrU eQμaHénvisVkr b¤ GñkPUKBðsa®sþEdl)anGnuvtþcMeBaHkaryksMNakKMrU
nigcMnYnénkarxYg nigCMerA.
2>4 karBiesaFn_enAnwgkardæan Field testing
eKmankarBiesaFn_CaeRcInRbePT EdlGacGnuvtþn_enAeBlxYg. karBiesaFn_enAnwgkardæanbI RbePT
FmμtaCageK nwgRtUv)anykmkBiPakSakñúgEpñkenH.
karBiesaFn_edaysarkarsgát;TMluHCabTdæan Standard Penetration test (SPT)
KWCakarsgát;]bkrN_sMNakKMrUEdlmanCBa¢aMgRkaseTAkñúgRsTab;xSac;. ]bkrN_sMNak SPT
SPT

RtUvEtmanGgát;p©itxagkñúg (D1) = 3.81cm(1.5in) nigGgát;p©itxageRkA (D ) = 5.08 cm(2in). ]bkrN_sMNak
0



KMrU SPT RtUv)ansgát;cUleTAkñúgdIxSac;edaykarTMlak;duMjjYrTMgn; 63.5kg(1401b) BIkMBs;
0.76m(30in) . ]bkrN_sMNakKMrU SPT RtUv)ansgát;cUlsrubCMerA 45cm (18in)
CamYynwgkarTMlak;duMjjÜrCaeRcIndgeday )ankt;Rtaral;CMerAKMlat 15cm (6in) . karvas;]bkrN_ SPT
tMél N ¬cMnYnTMlak;ral;kMBs; ft¦ KWCaPaBFn; énkarsgát;TMluHéndIxSac;
EdlesμInwgplbUkéncMnYnénkarTMlak;EdltMrUvsgát;]bkrN_sMNakKMrU SPT elICMerA cenøaHBI 15 eTA 45 cm
¬6eTA 18in¦. mUlehtuEdlcMnYnénkarTMlak;duMjjÜrkñúgtMél N KWCaerOy² dMeNIr
karénkarxYgeRcIneFVIeGaydIxUcRTg;RTayenAnwg)aténrn§GNþÚgxYg nigRtUv)anGanenACMerA 15 eTA 45cm (6 eTA
18in) RtUv)aneCOCak;fa vatMNagl¥CageKénPaBFn;éndIxSac; enAnwgkEnøg. Tinñn½yBIxageRkamkarCab;Tak;Tg

KñaéneBlbc©úb,nñrvagénkarvas;Evg. karvas;Evg SPT tMél N GacRtUv)anCHT§iBledayktþaénkarBiesaFn_
CaeRcInnig lkçxNÐdI. ]TahrN_ TMhMRKab;RKYsbegáInPaBFn;énkarsgát; ¬dUcenHbegáIntMél N¦ edayERb
køayPaBs¥itenAkñúg]bkrN_sMNakKMrU SPT. ktþaepSgeTotEdlCHT§iBl dl;karBiesaFn_ SPT tMél N KWTwk
enAkñúgdI. vamansar³sMxan;kñúgkarrkSakMritkMBs;TwkenAkñúgrn§GNþÚgxYg [esμI b¤sßitBIelIkMritkMBs;TwkkñúgdI dUc
enAnwgkEnøg. eKRtUvkarBarTwkkñúgdIkuMeGayeLIgcUleTAkñúg)aténrn§GNþÚrxYgEdleFVIeGayxSac;RtsuHehIy
lT§plénkarrab;tMél N Tab. eRkABIlkçxNÐRKab;RKYs nigTwkkñúgdIEdl)anBiBN’naxagelI enAmanktþa
BiesaFn_epSgKñaeTotCaeRcIn EdlGacCHT§iBldl;PaBCak;lak;énkarGan SPT. ]TahrN_ karBiesaFn_
SPT tMél N GacRtUv)anCHT§iBledaysarRbsiT§iPaBénduMjjÜr GRtaénkarTMlak;duMjjÜr Ggát;p©iténrn§

GNþÚgxYg nigRbEvgéndgEdk.
Van Shear Test (VST)
SPT nig CPT RtUv)aneRbIsMrab;karCab;Tak;TgKñaénPaBFn;énkarsgát;]bkrN_¬tMél N¦ b¤rujsgát;
duMekaNCamYynwglkçN³énvisVkmμ ¬dUcCalkçxNÐdg;suIet¦éndI. pÞúymkvij karBiesaFn_ vane test KWmanPaB
EbøkKñaBIkarBiesaFn_enAnwgkEnøgenAkardæanBIeRBaHvaRtUv)anvas;edaypÞal;nUvlkçN³BitR)akdéndI PaBFn;én
kMlaMgkat;pþac;éndIdæedayKμanbgðÚrTwk.
karBiesaFn_ Vane test KWCakars‘kbBa©Úl vane muxsMEb:t 4eTAkñúgrn§GNþÚgxYg rYcbnÞab;mkrujsgát;
vane cUleTAkñúgRsTab;dIdæEdlsßitenA)aténrn§GNþÚgxYg. enAeBl vane RtUv)anrujcUleTAkñúgdIdærYcehIy

karmYlGtibrmatMrUvsMrab;bgVil Vane nigkarkat;pþac;dIdæRtUv)anrab;.



VaneGacRtUv)anpþl;PaBFn;énkarpþac;edayKμankarpþac;edayKμankarbgðÚrTwkx<s;xøaMg RbsinebI Vane
RtUv)anbgVily:agelOnxøaMgenaH. karBiesaFn_ vane test pþl;nUvlT§plEdlminGaceCOCak;)an sMrab;RsTab;
dIdæ EdlmanRsTab;dIxSac; b¤RsTab; lenses/ varved clay RbsinebIdIdæmanRKab;RKYs b¤bMENksMbkxügb:unduM
RKYs.
3> RKwH Foundation
EpñkenHniyayBIkareRCIserIsRbePTRKwH. kareRCIserIslkçN³BiessénRbePTRKwHCaerOy² QrelI
mUldæanktþaCaeRcIndUcCa³
CMerARKb;RKan;. vaRtUvEtmanCMerARKb;RKan;edIm,IkarBareRKaHfñak;edaykarkkTwkkk. sMrab;
RKwHdUcCassrs<an CMerAénRKwHRtUvEtRKb;RKan;edIm,IkarBarnwgkarCIkBIeRkamedaykarduHlag.
karbraC½yénlT§PaBRTRTg;. RKwHRtUvEtmansuvtßiPaBRbQmnwg karbraC½yénlT§PaBRT
RTg;.
karRsut. RKwHminRtUvRsutdac;xatEdlGacbNþal[eRKaHfñak;dl;eRKagbgÁúMTaMgmUl.
KuNPaB. RKwHRtUvEtmanKuNPaBRKb;RKan;EdlvaminRbQmnwgPaBkan;Ety:ab;yWneLIg
dUcCakarvayRbhareday sulfate énebtugeCIgtag.
PaBFn;énkMlaMgRKb;RKan;. RKwHRtUv)anKitCamYynwgPaBFn;énkMlaMgRKb;RKan;Edlvamin
Gac)ak; b¤EbkecjBIKñaeRkambnÞúkéneRKagsMNg;xagelIEdlmanGMeBIelIva. vak¾RtUvEtsagsg;edayRtwmRtUv
edayGnuelameTAtamkarKiténesovePAlMGitbec©keTs.
karpøas;bþÚrdIminl¥.RKwHRtUvEtGacFn;eTAnwgkarpøas;bþÚrdIEdlminl¥yUrGEgVg. ]TahrN_
sMrab;dIEdlrIkmaD ¬dI silt b¤dIdæ¦ EdlGacrIkb¤ rYmmaDnwgeFVIeGayRKwHmanclnaehIy eFVIeGayeRKagsMNg;
maneRKaHfñak;.
kMlaMgrMBa¢ÜydI. RKwHRtUvEtGacRTeRKagsMNg;kñúgGMLúgeBlrBa¢ÜydIedayKμan clnaRsutcuH
xøaMg b¤eTAxag.



3>1 RKwHrak; Shallow Foundation
RKwHrak;CaerOy² RtUv)aneRCIserIsenAeBlbnÞúkeRKagsMNg; nwgminbeNþayeGayRsTab;dIBIxag
eRkammansMrutxøaMg. CaTUeTA RKwHrak;KWmanPaBsnSMsMécCagkarsagsg;CamYyRKwHeRCA. RbePTRKwHrak;Fmμta
RtUv)anBiBN’naxageRkam³

rUbTI 2-1 eCIgtag
eCIgtag/ RKwHrYm/ RKwHEvg spread footing/ combined footing and strip footing
RbePTRKwHrak;TaMgenH KWCaRbePTRKwHsMNg;FmμtaEdleRbIR)as;eRcInCageK.



rUbTI2-2 RKwHcak;eBj
RKwHcak;eBj Mat Foundation
edayQrelImUldæanénkarKitesdækic© RKwHcak;eBjRtUv)ansagsg;sMrab;ehtupldUcxageRkam³
- eCIgtagEdlmanTMhMFM. RKwHcak;eBjCaerOy² RtUv)ansagsg;enAeBlplbUkénRklaépÞeCIgtag
TaMgGs;FMCagRbEhlBak;kNþalénRklaépÞRKwHsrub.
- RsTab; lenses EdlGacbgðab; b¤xUg. RKwHcak;eBjGacRtUv)aneRbIenAeBlNaEdldMeNIrkarrukrk
RsTab;eRkamdI bgðajfanwgmansMrutvismPaBEdlbNþalmkBIRsTab;EdlGacbgðab;)an b¤RkLúkxUgtUc²enA
BIxageRkamRKwH. RKwHcak;eBjGacRtUv)ancak;CaElVgeBjBIelIrn§xUgtUc² b¤RsTab; lenses Tn;exSay nigbegáIt
lkçxNÐsMrutÉksNæanCag.
- sMrutrak;. RKwHcak;eBjGacRtUv)anENnaMenAeBlEdlkarRKbsgát;BIelImansMrutrak;ehIyRKwHcak;
eBjRtUv)ankat;bnßysMrut differential.
- bnÞúkrayminesμI. sMrab;eRKagsMNg;xøH vaGacmanPaBxusKñaFMsMrab;bnÞúksMNg;EdlmanskmμPaB
enAelIépÞepSgKñaénRKwH. karRbRBwtþeTAtamkarRBmeRBogénRKwHeCIgtagGacRtUv)anRbQmeTAnwgsMrut
differential EdlFMhYs b:uEnþRKwHcak;bMeBjnwgRtUvBRgaybnÞúkrayminesμI nigkat;bnßysMrut differential .



- karedaleLIgeday hydrostatic. enAeBlRKwHnwgRtUvRbQmnwgkarehIbeLIgeday hydrostatic Edl
bNþalmkBIépÞénTwkkñúgTwk RKwHcak;eBjGacRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IFn;nwgkMlaMgedaleLIg.

Post-tensioned slab-on-grade
vaKWCaRbePTRKwHEdlsnSMsMécenAeBlKμankarkkTwkkkkñúgTwk b¤CMerAénkarRCabTwkkkTab. bMerI
bMras;FmμtaCageKénkMral Post-tensioned slab-on-grade KWFn;eTAnwgkMlaMgrIkéndI b¤enAeBlRbQmeTAnwg
sMrut differential FMCagtMélGnueRKaHsMrab;karRbRBwtþeTAtamkarRBmeRBogénkMral on-grade ¬EdlmanEdk
y:agesþIg¦. ]TahrN_kMral post-tensioned slab-on-grade CaerOy²RtUv)anENnaMRbsinebIkarRbQménsMrut
differential KWrMBwgfaFMCag 2cm(0.75in) . kMral post-tensioned slab-on-grade KWCaebtugEdlmanbgáb;

sésrEdkBYrEdleRsabeday)øasÞiky:agRkas;. eRsam)øasÞikkarBarsésrBYurBIkarb:HBal;CamYynwgebtug nig
GnuBaØati[sésrBYGacrGilkñúgebtugEdlkkrwgkñúgeBldMeNIrkarénkarTaj. CaFmμtasésrBYrmancugmçag
gab;¬bnÞHTMBk;¦ kñúgbrimaRt¬Cay¦Fñwm nigcugmçageTotEdlTTYl stress

enAbrimaRtFñwmQmedIm,IGac[ sésrBYrTTYl stress BIxagcugmçag.
RKwHrak;déTeTot shallow foundation afternatives
RbsinebIsMrutEdlrMBwgsMrab;RKwHrak;EdlesñImantMélFMeBk enaHbMNgepSgeTotsMrab;TMrRKwH b¤kareFVI
[dImanesßrPaBRtUvEtGacvaytMél. lkçN³d¾éTeTotFmμtaxøHEdlGacRtUveRbIRtUv)anerobrab;dUcxageRkam³
-BRgaydI. RbtibtþikarBRgabdI GacRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;ykecjnUvRsTab;dIEdlGachab; nig CMnYs
vijedaykarbMeBjrcnasm<½n§. CaFmμtabMNgénkarBRgabdI KWmanlkçN³snSMsMécEtmYyKt;RbsinebI
RsTab;dIEdlhab;sßitenAEk,rRsTab;dIEpñkelI nigRsTab;TwkkñúgdIsßitenABIeRkamRsTab;dIEdlGachab; b¤
RsTab; TwkkñúgdIGacRtUv)andak;eGayenAeRkamedIm,IkarsnSMsMéc.
-kardak;bnÞúkelIs. RbsinebIkardæanmanRsTab;dIsi¥t EdlGachab;enABIeRkamkardæanGacRtUv)an
dak; bnÞúkelIsedayRsTab;cak;bMeBjdak;BIelIépÞdI. karbgðÚrbBaÄr¬dUcCakarbgðÚrdUcRbeqHEdkekH
b¤karbgðÚreday xSac;¦ GacRtUv)andak;enAkñúgRsTab;dIEdlGachab;edIm,Ikat;bnßyExSénkarbgðÚr nigbegáIn
el,ÓnéndMeNIrkarbgðab;. enAeBlEdlRsTab;dIs¥itGacbgðab;)anRtUv)anTTYlnUvkarbgðab;RKb;RKan;ehIy
RsTab;EdlbMeBjelIsbnÞúk RtUv)anykecj nigsMNg;RtUv)ansagsg;.


-karbegáIndg;suIet. viFIepSgKñaCaeRcInGacRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IbegáIndg;suIetdIRtsuH b¤Tn;. ]TahrN_
karbgðab; vibro-flotation nig dynamic CaerOy² manRbsiT§iPaBkñúgkarbegáIndg;suIetRsTab;dIxSac;RtsuH.
eKalbMNgepSgeTotKWkarbgðab; grouting EdlCakarsgát;BnøicduMm:as grout EdlmankMras;Rkas;Nas;enAkñúg
dI EdlTaMgCMnYs nigbgðab;dIRtsuH.
-RKwHGENþk. RKwHGENþtKWCaRbePTRKwHeRCABiess EdlTMgn;éneRKagsMNg;RtUv)anføwgedayykecj
nUvdI nigsagsg;nUvkMralCan;eRkamdI.
3>2 RKwHeRCA

rUbTI 2-3 RbePT pile
RbePTénRKwHeRCAFmμtaPaKeRcInKW RKwH pile. Pile GacCaeQI ¬edImeQI¦/ EdkEdlmanmuxkat; H,
ebtugcak;rYc/ ebtugcak;enAnwgkEnøg/ ebtugEdlcak;edaysMBaF/ karbMeBjebtugkñúgbMBg; pile RbePTpSMKña.
Pile KW)anBIkarsgát;cUlkñúgdIb¤RtUv)antMeLIgenAkñúgrn§EdlxYgmun. Pile Edl)anBIkarsgát;cUlkñúgdI
CaTUeTARtUv)ancat;Tukfa CakarykecjTab b¤x<s;GaRs½yeTAnwgbrimaNdIEdl RtUvEt)anrujecjtampøÚvEdl


Pile sgát;cUl. ]TahrN_karykecjTabén Pile KWEdkmuxkat;GkSr H nig bMBg; pile EdkEdlmancugcMhr
Edlmin)anbegáItFñúkenAxagcugEpñkxagdI. ]TahrN_sMrab; pile ykecjx<s; KW Pile
EdlmanlkçN³tan;dUcCa Pile duMeQImUl b¤Pile ebtugcak;eRscmuxkat;kaernig bMBg;Pile EdkEdlman
cugbiTCit.
Pile Edlcak;enAnwgkEnøgRtUv)anbegáItedayeFVIrn§enAkñúgdI nigbnÞab;mkbMeBjrn§edayebtug. sMrab;

Bum<d¾samBaØCageK Pile Edlcak;enAnwgkEnøgmanrn§Edl)ancak;EdlRtUvcak;bMeBjedayebtug. RbsinebIdI
GaccUlkñúgrn§enaH Pile RbePT shell GacRtUv)antMeLIg. viFIenHKWCakarsgát; shell Edk b¤RbGb;eTAkñúgdI.
RbGb;GacRtUvduMeday mandrel EdlbnÞab;mkRtUvykecjehIy RbGb;RtUv)anbMeBjedayebtug. sMrab;krNI
epSgeTotRbGb;GacRtUvduMbBa©ÚleTAkñúgdI nigbnÞab;ykbnþicmþg² RtUv)anykecjBIrn§nig bMeBjedayebtug.
4> karCIkdIsMrab;eFVIRKwH Foundation excavation
eKmanRbePTénkarCIkdIepSgKñaCaeRcInEdlGnuvtþkñúgGMLúgkarsagsg;énKMerag. ]TahrN_dIGacRtUv
CIkBIreNþA b¤kEnøgnigbnÞab;mkcak;bMeBjvij. ]TahrN_epSgeTotKWkarCIkCalkçN³KnøwHkat;pþac; b¤ buttress
EdlnwgRtUveRbIedIm,IeFVIeGayCMerl b¤dIEdlRtUvrGiltamxagmanesßrPaB. ]TahrN_epSgeTotsMrab;karCIk
KWdUcxageRkam³
4>1 karCIkdIsMrab;eCIgtag Footing Excavation
esvaRbePTenHCab;Tak;Tgnwg karvas;nUvTMhMénEpñkPUKBðsa®sþ¬dUcCaCMerA nigTMhMéneCIgtag¦ edIm,I
eFVIeGayc,as;fa vaGnuelameTAtamtMrUvkarénbøg;sMNg;. esvaenHCaerOy² RtUv)anGnuvtþn_kñúgeBldUcKña nig
karRtYtBinitüedIm,IbBa¢ak;BIlkçxNÐRTRTg;.
4>2 karxYgsMrab; Pier Excavation of Piers
dUcKñanwgkarCIkdIsMrab;eCIgtag visVkrPUKBðsa®sþRtUv)antMrUvsMrab;bBa¢ak;eGayc,as;BICMerA niglkçxNÐ
RTRTg;én Pier. rUbTI2>4 bgðajBICMh‘anFmμtakñúgkarsagsg;énkarxYg pier.



rUb 2-4 CMha‘nFmμtakñúgkarsagsg;énkarxYgpier
4>3 karCIkdIcMhr open excavation
karCIkdIcMhr KWCakarCIkdIEdlmanCMerlxagmanesßrPaB b¤minRtUv)anTb;Tl;.
4>4 karCIkdIedaymanCnÞl; braced excavtion
karCIkdIedaymanCnÞl;KWCakarCIkEdlEpñkxagRtUv)anTb;edayeRKagbgÁúMTb;dI. rUbTI 2-5 bgðajBI
RbePTFmμtaénRbBn½§Tb;nwgkarCIkdIedaymanCnÞl;
5> viFIbegáInsßanPaBRTRTg;dI Improvement methods
5/1 karBRgabdI Grading
enAeBlkardæansMNg;CaeRcIncab;epþImedaydITeT CMh‘anTI1sMrab;kardæansagsg;eFVIkarFmμtaCab;
Tak;Tgnig karBRgabdIénkardæan. karBRgabdIKW CadMeNIrkarEdlmankarCIkkarcak;bMeBj b¤bnSúMénkargar
enH. dMeNIrkarénkarBRgabFmμtaGacrYmbBa©ÚlnUvkarerobrab;xøH b¤TaMgGs;³



rUb2-5 RbePTFmμtaénRbBn½§Tb;dI nigkarCIkdIedaymanCnÞl;
Eeasement
CMha‘ndMbUgéndMeNIrkarBRgabKW kMNt;TItaMgéneRKOgeRbIR)as;enAkardæan nig easement . CaerOy²
eRKOgeRbIR)as;enAkardæan nig easement RtUvkarBarcaM)ac;EdlvaminGaceRKaHfñak;kñúgGMLúgeBlRbtibtþikar
BRgabdI.
sMGat/ e)as/ nig QUsrMelIg/ Clearing, brushing and grubbing
sMGat e)as nigQUsrMelIg KWCaskmμPaBykecjnUvedImrukçCati¬dUcCa/ esμA/ éRB kem<at/ edImeQI
nigRbePTdMNaMRsedogenH¦ tamn½yemkanic. vamansar³sMxan;EdlkaksMNl;TaMgenHRtUv)anykecjBIkar
dæan nigmindak;enAkñúgkarbMeBjCam:assMrab;eRKagsMNg;EdlbgánUveRKaHfñak;.


kare)assMGat
dMeNIrkarBRgabdIenHKW edaHRsayCamYynwgkarykecjnUvsarFatuEdlminsaksmnwgRTRTg;enAkar
dæan dUcCadIl,b;EdlRtsuH b¤manrn§es<at/ collunvium, rukçCatiBuk/ vtßúesμakeRKaK nigkarbMeBjEdlminGac
bgðab;)an.
karkat;CakaM² ¬tMbn;CMerlPñM¦ Benching (Hillside areas)

karkat;CakaM² KWCakarCIkCakaM² EdlmankMritkMBs;bnþbnÞab;eTAkñúgsarFatuEpndIEdlenABIelIfñak;kaM
RtUv)anbMeBjedaysarFatubMeBj.
canyon subdrain
KWCabMBg; b¤RbB½n§bgðÚrTwkEdldak;fμ RKYs b¤sarFatuRsedogKña dak;kñúgcg¥Úr
Subdrain canyon b¤
RbLaybgðÚrTwkcas;.
bnÞab;BIkardak; subdrainrYcehIy karbMeBjrcnasm<½n§RtUv)andak;BIelIkMBUl subdrain.
karP¢Ür nigkarbMhab;vij (scarifying and recompaction)
sMrab;tMbn;rabesμIEdlKμankarCIkkat;CakaM² karP¢Ür
nigkarbgðab;eLIgvijénépÞdIRtUv)anGnuvtþeday ]bkrN_bgðab;kñúgeKalbMNgedIm,ITTYlnUvPaBs¥itl¥rvagsar
FatuenAnigkEnøgnwg sarFatucak;bMeBjfμI.
dMeNIrkarBRgabdIrdwbrdubedaykat; nigbMeBj Cut and fill rough grading operation
RbtibtþikarBRgabdIrdwbrdubTak;Tgnwgkarkat;sarFatudIBIkEnøgx<s;nig bgðab;sarFatucak;bMeBjkñúg
tMbn;Tab kñúgeKalbMNgBRgabdIeGay)anrabesμI. skmμPaBepSgeTotGacRtUv)anGnuvtþkñúgGMLúgRbtibtþikar
BRgabdIrdwbrdubdUcCa³
- relIgb¤ )aj;bMEbkduMfμ. bMEbkduMfμFM²GacRtUvykecjBIkardæan b¤dak;enAeRkArgVg;kargar.
- PaBpøas;bþÚrKñaénkarkat;nig bMeBj. skmμPaBenHKWsßitenARTnab;sMNg;EdlmçagRtUvkat;cuHeRkam
rhUtdl;b:HRsTab;FmμCati b¤fμ enAeBlEdlEpñkmçageTotRtUv)ancak;bMeBj. viFImYysMrab;edaHRsayCamYy
nwgkarpøas;bþÚrKñaénkarkat;nig karbMeBjKWCIkEpñkEdlkat;[hYskMritEdlRtUvkat;rYceTIbcak;bMeBjeday
sarFatucak;bMeBj.
- kareFVIeGayCMerlmanesßrPaB. ]TahrN_sMrab;kareFVIeGayCMerlmanesßrPaBedayeRbIsarFatudI
rYmbBa©ÚlTaMgkareFVIeGaymanesßrPaBcak;bMeBj/ buttress fill/ drainage buttress nig KnøwHénkarkat;pþac; (shear
key) . ]bkrN_xagelIKYrRtUv)aneRbICamYynwg RbBn§½ backdrain.



- karbMeBjCMerl. enAeBlbegáItkarbMeBjCMerl vamankarkarBi)akkñúgkarbgðab;CayxageRkAén
m:asbMeBj. BIeRBaHvaKμansMBaFTb;xag dIGaceRClFøak;cuHEdlmin)anbegáIndg;suIet. edIm,IedaHRsay
sßanPaBEbbenH CMerlGacRtUv)ansagsg;hYsTMhM ehIybnÞab;mkkat;ykvijmkdl;Kl;Edl )anbgðab;.
viFId¾l¥bMputTI2d¾éTeTot KWeRbIdMeNIrkarsagsg;EdlmansarRbeyaCn_dUcCa bec©keTs back-rolling
b¤edayeRbI bulldozer edIm,I track walk tamCMerl.
- rMlwkeLIgvijBIdMeNIrkarBRgabdI. ral;kargarBRgabdITaMgGs;manPaBEbøkKña nigGacmankarpøas;
bþÚrRbtibtþikarBRgabdIedayQrelImUldæanlkçxNÐkardæan.
karBRgabdIm:t; Fine Grading
enAeBlEdlkarBRgabdIrdwbrdub)ancb;sBVRKb;ehIy karBRgabdIm:t;RtUv)anGnuvtþedIm,ITTYl)annUv
kMritkMBs;cugeRkay EdlGnuelameTAtambøg;BRgabdI EdlmanPaBsuRkit.
karkarBarCMerl nigRtYtBinitükarhUreRcaH slop protectin and erasion control
eTaHbICaFmμtavaminEmnCakarTTYlxusRtUvrbs;Gñkem:AkarBRgabdIk¾eday eRkayBIkarBRgabdIm:t;)an
bBa©b; karkarBarCMerl nig]bkrN_RtYtRtakarhUreRcaHCaRbcaMRtUv)antMeLIg.
karCIksñamePøaH Trench excavation
sñamePøaHéneRKOgeRbIR)as;RtUv)anCIkedIm,ICakartMrg;énesckþIesñIpøÚv nigRsTab;sMNg;sMrab;tMeLIg
eRKOgeRbIR)as;enAkardæan. karCIknig karbgðab;énsñamePøaHCaerOy² CaEpñkéndMeNIrkarBRgabdI.
enAeBlExSéneRKOgeRbIR)as;RtUv)antMelIg karP¢Ürnig karbgðab;RTnab;RKwHpøÚvRtUv)anGnuvtþnig sarFatu
RKwHRtUv)andak;ehIybgðab;.
karCIkdIsMrab;eCIgtagnig RKwH Footing and Foundation excavatin
eTaHbICaFmμtavaminEmnCaEpñkéndMeNIrkarBRgabdI EpñkRKwHnig eCIgtagRtUv)anCIkCabnþ.
5>2 eKalkarN_énkarbgðab; Compaction Foundation
Epñkd¾sMxan;énkarBRgabdIénkardæanCaerOy² rYmbBa©ÚlTaMgkarbgðab;sarFatubMeBj. karbgðab;KWCa
karbegáIndg;suIeténGgÁFatubMeBjtamviFIemkanicdMeNIrkarrUbénkareFVIeGaydImansßanPaBhab;enHGacbegáIn
PaBFn;énkMlaMgkat;pþac; kat;bnßykarEdlGachab; kat;bnßyPaBRCabTwkéndI. karmanktþaeKal4 Edl
b:HBal;dl;karbgðab;³
RbePTdI Soil Type


dIminmanlkçN³)øasÞikdUcCaxSac; nigRKYs GacRtUvbgðab;edayRbsiT§iPaBedayeRbIdMeNIrkar bgðab;
RbePTrMj½r. dIEdlmanlkçN³)øasÞik¬]TahrN_manPaBs¥it¦ dUcCa sift nigdIdæKWmankarBi)akkñúgkarbgðab;
nigtMrUveGaymandMeNIrkarbgðab;RbePTluj b¤buinRbsBV.
RbsinebIdImanRKab;FMhYsxñat dUcCaduMRKYsfμFM nig fμ cabble GacnwgeRCotcUlCamYynwgdMeNIrkar
bgðab; nigkat;bnßyRbsiT§iPaBénkarbgðab;RKab;dIm:t;Cag.
sarFatuEdlmanlMdab;RKab; Meterial Gradation
dIEdlmanTMhMRKab;tamlMdab;l¥CaTUeTAGac nwgbgðab;bBa©ÚlkñúgsßanPaBENnCag dIEdlmanlMdab;
RKab;minl¥EdlmanTMhMRKab;esÞIrEtesμIKña.
Twkxagkñúg Water content
Water contentKWCa):ara:Em:RtsMxan;kñúgkarbgðab;dI. TwkGacCaeRKOgrMGilRKab;dIEdlCYyeGayvarGil
cUlkñúgkartMerobeGayENn. eTaHCay:agNa TwkeRcIneBk eFVIeGaydIkøayCaEq¥tTwk nigCaerOy² Bi)akkñúg
karbgðab;. eKmankMritkMBUlén Water content EdldIGacbgðab;cUlkñúgsßanPaBENnCageK Edlpþl;
edayfamBlénkarbgðab;.
RbePT Optiimum moisure content (Modified Proctor) sMrab;RbePTdIepSgKñaKW erobrab;xageRkam³
-dIdæEdlmanlkçN³)øasÞikx<s; (CH): Optimum moisture content 18%
-dIdæEdlmanlkçN³)øasÞikTab (CL): Optimum moisture content 12% eTA 18%
-xSac;manTMhMCalMdab;l¥ (SW): Optimum moisture content 10%
-RKYsEdlmanTMhMCalMdab;l¥ (GW): Optimum moisture content 7%
RbePTdIxøHGacnwgmanTMnak;TMngedaykMr CamYynwgkarbgðab;eday Water content.]TahrN_ Open-graded
gravel nig clean coarse sand KWmansPaBRCabTwkEdlTwkGacbgðÚrecjy:agRsYlBIdI b¤CMrujecjeRkAeday

dMeNIrkarénkarbgðab;. dIRbePTenHCaerOy²GacRtUvTukeGaysßitenAkñúgsßanPaBs¶ÜtrYcehIyrMj½reGaycUl
tMerobRKab;xSac;eGayENnaM.



CMBUkIII³
eRKagsMNg;ebtugmanq¥wgr)aeEdkBRgwgnig sMPar³ebtug
Reinforcing bar concrete sturcture and concrete meterial
3

1> sMPar³suIm:g;t_ Cementitious material
sMPar³suIm:t_rYmmanplitplCaeRcInEdlRtUv)anrlayCamYynwgTwk b¤sarFaturavd¾éTxøHeTot b¤
TaMgBIr edIm,IbegáIt)anCakMe)areRbg (cementing paste) EdlGacbegáItb¤ eFVIBum<enAeBlvaenACalkçN³)øasiÞk
b:uEnþva nwgkøayeTACaTMrg;rwgmaM. enAeBlxSac;RtUv)anbEnßmeTAkñúgkMe)areRbg vabegáIt)anCakMe)ar)ayGr.
karcUl pSMénRKYs nigxSac; eTAkñúgkMe)areRbgvakøayeTACaebtug.
1>1 RbePTénsMPar³suIm:g;t_ Type of cementitious meterials
eKmansuIm:g;t_CaeRcInRbePT ehIyviFIénkarcat;cMNat;fñak;k¾eRcInEdr. viFIénkarcat;fñak;cMNat;fñak;
mYyEdlsamBaØCageKbMput KWkarcat;cMNat;fñak;edaysarFatupSMKImI EdlCaGñkTTYlxusRtUvsMrab;kareFVIkar
nigeLIgrwgénsuIm:g;t_. enAelIeKalkrN_enH suIm:g;t_suIlIkat (silicate) nig GaluymINat (aluminate) Edl
kñúgenaHPñak;gareFVIkar (setting agent) KWkal;süÚmsuIlIkat (calsium silicate) nigkal;süÚmGaluymINat
(calcium aluminate) KWCaRkumEdlsMxan;CageKsMrab;suIm:g;t_TMenIb (modern cement) .rYmbBa©ÚlkñúgRkumenHKW

lanning/ aluminous nigsuIm:g;t_FmμCati (natural cement) .

fμkMe)ar (lime) EdlkñúgenHPaBeLIgrwg KWbNþalmkBIkarbmøas;énGuIRduksuItkmμeTACa carbonate Edl
RtUv)aneRbICadMbUgy:agTUlayCasMPar³suIm:g;t_EtmYyKt; b:uEnþkareFVIkarnig PaBeLIgrwgyWtrbs;vaminRtUvKña
nwgtMrUvkarénsuIm:g;t_TMenIb. dUcenHtYnaTICacMbgrbs;vasBVéf¶ KWlkçN³ Plastic én Harsh cement nigbEnßm
resilience eTAelI)ayGr b¤stucco. KuNRbeyaCn_énkareRbIR)as;fμkMe)arKWPaBeFVIkaryWtrbs;va)anCMrujnUvkar

Büa)al nigkarCYsCulsñameRbHdUcséssk;.


cMNat;fñak;énsuIm:g;t_epSgeTotKW )anBIkarpSMénmñagsila calcined nigplitplTak;Tgnwgva. suIm:g;t_
mñagsilaRtUv)aneRbIy:agTUlaysMrab;kMe)arbUkxagkñúg nigsMrab;plit board nig block b:uEnþPaBGacrlay)an
énmñagsila)ankarBarxøÜnva BIkareRbIR)as;sMrab;sNg;EdlRbQmnwgGakasFatud¾éT b:uEnþl¥bMputsMrab;
M
GakasFatuekþA.
suIm:g;t_G‘uksuItkørIt KWCacMNat;fñak;énsuIm:g;t_BiessEdlmanlkçN³xusFmμta. tMélrbs;va)an
hamXat; kareRbIR)as;TUeTAebIeFobCamYynwgsuIm:g;t_EdlefakCag b:uEnþþsMrab;kareRbIR)as;CalkçN³Biess
dUcCaplitplkMralkarBarePøIg (sparkproof floor) eKminGacRbdUc)aneT.
suIm:g;t_sMrab;rabdæ b¤suIm:g;t_)ayGrRtUv)aneRbIy:agTUlMTUlayedaysarEt PaBgayRsYlrbs;va.
CaTUeTAenAeBlvaRtUv)anlayedaysuIm:g;t_mYyRbePTkñúgcMeNamsuIm:g;t_Edl)anerobrab;xagelICamYynwgTwk
fñaMKImIxøH vasmnwgTTYlnUvkarcab;GarmμN_BiessedaysarPaBsnSMsMécrbs;va.
sMPar³suIm:g;t_epSgeTotdUcCa polymer/ fly ash nig silica fume GacRtUveRbIsuIm:g;t_CMnYssMrab;ebtug.
Plomer KWCa Plastic EdlmanRcvak;mU:elKulEvg. ebtugEdllayedaysuIm:gt;RbePTenHman KuNPaB

x<as;CagebtugedaysIum:g;t_Fmμta.
Silica fume EdlRtUv)ansÁal;Ca microsilica EdrenaHKWplitplsMNl;BIkardutedayLFñÚrGKÁisnI

(electric- arc funaces) . silica manRbtikmμCamYynwgfμkMe)arbegáIt)anCasMPar³suIm:g;t_enAkñúgebtug. bMENk

énfume manGgát;p©itEt 1° énbMENkGgát;p©itsuIm:g;t_.
1>2 suIm:g;t_Br½ELn (Portland Cement)
smasFatusMxan;mYy ¬fμkMe)ar (Cao), Edk(Fe o ), silica (Sio ) nig alumina (Al O ) ¦ nigsmasFatu
2 3 2 2 3

bnÞab;bnSM2eTot ¬mñagsila (CaSO -2H 0) nig magnesia (MgO) ¦ KWCavtßúFatuedIm. RbePTsarFatu
4 2

calcareous (CaO) )anmkBIfμkMe)ar (limestone), calcite, mail b¤fμPaCn_ (shale) nigxSac; (sand) . sarFatu

argillaceous( SiO nig Al2O3) )anmkBIkarTajykBIdIdæ ¬Clay¦/ fμPaCn_¬Shale¦ nigxüac; (Sand) .
2

sarFatuEdleRbIsMrab;plitRbePTsuIm:g;t_Cak;lak;my KWGaRs½yeTAnwgTItaMgeragcRkplit nigPaBEdl
Y
Gacrk)annUvvtßúFatuedI.
suIm:g;t_B½rELnGacplitBIplitpl ]sSahkmμCaeRcInRbePT. kñúgkarplitsuIm:g;t_dMbUgvtßúFatuedIm
RtUv)anykecjBIEr:rYcehIykineGayeTACaem:SAmunnwglayRcbUkCamYynwgsmasFatuEdlerobcMCamuneRsc.
karlayRcbUkKW eFVIeLIgedayLdutkMedAEdlvilenAEpñkxagcugx<s;CageK edaykMedABI2600 eTA 3000 F º



EdldutedayeRbg ]sμ½n b¤famBlFüÚgfμ. edaysarkarplitsuIm:g;t_KWCa dMeNIrkarplitEdlRtUvkarfamBl
d¾sMebIm ]bkrN_kMedA nigbMerIbMras;d¾éTeToteRkABI RbPBn§n³ dUcCaC½rekAs‘Ucas;²
RtUv)aneRbIedIm,Ikat;bnßyéfø n§n³. ¬kardutekAs‘Ukg;pþl;kMedAedIm,Iplit Clinker nigdutExSRkv:at;
Edkpþl;[FatupSMénEdk¦. kareFVI[ sItuNðPaBeLIgx<s;KW edIm,IFatuKImIénvtßúFatuedIm rlaycUlKña
begáIt)anCaduMtUc²rwgEdleKehAfa clinker. bnÞab;BITukeGayRtCak; duMtUc² clinker RtUv)andak;eGayqøgkat;
ball mill nigkinbMEbkeTACaPaKl¥itepH Edl PaKl¥itTaMgenHnwgRtUvErgqøgkat;kERBa¢gelx 200 (75µm)

CaBiess. kñúgGMLúgeBlenHkarkinbMEbk sarFatumñagsilaRtUv)anbEnßmkñúgbrimaNd¾tictYcedIm,IRtYtRtanUv
sItuNðPaBnig Fanadl;kareFVIkarénsuIm:g;t_ eTogTat;. sMPar³EdlRtUvqøgkat; ball mill KWCasIum:g;t_ lanning.
CaFmμtavaRtUv)an lk;CakBa©b;suIm:gt_ EdlmanTMgn; 941b.
ebtugEdlFmμtaCageKeRbIsMrab;suIm:g;t_ lanning KWCasMPar³saMjauMEdlmanrYm suIm:g;t_ lanning RKYs
xSac; Twk nigTwkfñaMKImI nig Er:epSgeTotEdlGacrk)an. kareRbIR)as;suIm:g;t_ lanning EtÉgKWkMrNas;EdleRbI
sMrab;dUcCa)ayGrsuIm:g;t_sMrab;bMeBj Wellhole b¤bMeBj fine grout . dUcenH vamansarsMxan;Nas;kñúgkar
RtYtBinitüTMnak;TMngrvaglkçN³epSg² énsIum:g;t_ lanning nigT§iBld¾manskþanuBlrbs;vaeTAelIebtugcug
bBa©b;. CaTUeTAebtugsIum:gt;B½rELnRtUv)aneRCIserIssMrab;kargarsMNg;eRKagBIeRBaH edaysarPaBFn;én
kMlaMg nigPaBeRbIR)as;)anyUrGEgVgrbs;va. PaBFn;énkMlaMgKWGacvas;)any:aggay nigGaceRbIsMrab;Ca
smasPaBcg¥úlbgðajeday pÞal;CalkçN³TUeTAénPaBeRbIR)as;)anyUréneRKagTaMgRsug. PaBeRbIR)as;)an
yUrGEgVgCak;lak;minGacvas; )anedaygayeT b:uEnþvaGacbBa¢ak;y:agc,as;edaykarRtYtRta énlkçN³KImI
énsuIm:g;t_niglkçN³fμbMEbk.
1>3 suIm:g;t_GaluymIj:Úm Aluminous Cement
l,ayénvtßúFatu aluminous nig calcareous ¬CaTUeTA bauxite nigkMe)ar ¦ RtUv)anerobcMedaykarrMlay
cUlKñanig karkinbMEbkénplitplpÁÜb edIm,IeGay)anCaemSAm:t;.
suIm:g;t_enHRtUv)ankMNt;lkçN³edaylkçN³ énkarqab;rwgqab; nwgPaBFn;énkMlaMgeLIgx<s;enAeBl
EdlvaGayux©IenAeLIy.
enAeBlEdlbrimaNkMedAeRcInRtUvedaHElgy:agelOnedaysuIm:g;t_ aluminous kñúgGMLúgeBl
GuIRdatkmμ GñkKYrRbytñ½kuMeRbIsuIm:g;t_dak;bBa©ÚlkñúgeBlEdlkMedAminGacrsay. CaTUeTA eKminR)afñadak;



ebtugsuIm:gt¾ aluminous eTAkñúg lift Edlx<s;Ca 12Guin ebIeTaHbICasItuNðPaBekIneLIgvaGacbNþaleGay
ebtugcuHexSayPaBFn;CaxøaMg.
suIm:g;t_ aluminous manPaBFn;eTAnwgskmμPaBénTwks‘ulpatxøaMgCagsuIm:g;t_ lanning. vaemIlBIxag
eRkAeTAdUcCamanPaBFn;nwgkarvayRbharedayTwkEdl mansarFatuQøanBan carbon dioxide b¤GasuItEr:
exSayxøaMgCasuIm:g;t_suIlIkat. eKalkarN_énkareRbIR)as;vaenAkñúgebtug KWenAeBlEdlPaBFn;énkMlaMg
x<s;qab;CaGtßRbeyaCn_ b¤edayPaBFn;éns‘ulpatrbs;va nigenAeBlEdl tMélbEnßménsuIm:g;t_ minEmnCa
ktþa sMxan;.
bMerIbMras;epSgeToténsuIm:g; aluminous KWrYmpSMCamYynwg firebrick edIm,IbegáItCaebtugFn;nwgkMedA
(refractory concrete) . enAeBlEdlsItuNðPaBekIneLIg karykFatuTwkecjBIplitplGuIRdatkmμGacekIt

eLIg. TIbMput smasFatuenHbegáItCa ceramic bond CamYynwgfμbMEbk.
1>4 suIm:g;t_FmμCati Natural Cements
sIum:g;t_FmμCatiRtUv)anbegáIt edaykarduteGayeTACapHedayFmμCatinUvl,ayEdl)anekItBIsarFatu
calcareous nig argillaceous enAsItuNðPaBeRkamGVIEdl sintering ykmkeRbIkar. enAeBlEdlsuIm:g;t_FmμCati

RtUv)andkecjBIvtßúFatuEdlekIteLIgedayFmμCatinig KμankarxMRbwgNamYyRtUv)aneFVIeGayEktMrUvsmasPaB
TaMgsmasPaB niglkçN³ERbRbYllμmy:agTUlMTUlay. suIm:gt_FmμCatixøH GaclkçN³esÞIrEtdUcKñanwg
suIm:g;t_ lanning suIm:g;t_FmμCatiepSgeTotmanPaBexSayxøaMgCag. suIm:g;t_FmμCatiRtUv)aneRbICaTUeTAenAkñúg
kMe)ar)ayGr (masonry mortar) nigeRbICaTwkfñaMKImIenAkñúgebtugsuIm:g;t_ lanning.
1>5 kMe)ar Limes
kMe)arenHRtUv)anbegáItCaTUeTAedaykal;süÚmG‘uksuIt (CaO) EdlkekIteLIgCaFmμCatienAkñúgfμkM)ar
(limestone) / fμm:ab (marble), chalk, coral nigsMbkxüg (Shell) .sMrab;eKalbMNgsMNg;GaKar vaRtUveRbICa

hiefly enAkñúgkMe)ar)ayGr.
Hydaulic lime
kMe)arenHbegáItBIkarduteGayeTACaepHénfμkMe)arEdlmansarFatu silica nig aluminia enAsItuNðPaB
d¾xøI énkarrMlaybBa©ÚlKñaEdleTIbnwgcab;maneLIg EdlbegáItCa kMe)aresrIRKb;RKan; edIm,IGnuBaØatidl;
GuIRdatkmμ nigkñúgeBlCamYyKñabeBa©jnUvkal;süÚmsuIlIkatRKb;RKan;EdlmineFVIGuIRdatkmμedIm,I[Ca em:SAs¶Üt
lkçN³ hydraulic rbs;va.


edaysarEtkarpSMy:agTabénsuIlIkat nigkMe)ary:agx<s; kMe)ar hydraulic manTMnak;TMngy:agexSay.
eKrkeXIjkareRbIR)as;CaeKalkarN_enAkñúgkMe)ar)ayGr. kMe)arGuIRdUlItmansuIlIkateRcInCag10° nwg
kkenAeRkamTwk.
Quicklime
enAeBlEdlfñkMe)arRtUvdutkMedAenAsItuNðPaBhYsBI 17008F
sarFatu]sμ½nkabUnDIGuksuItnwgRtUv )andkecj nigplitplrwgEdlenAsl;KW Quicklime.
CaBiessvaman]sμ½nkal;süÚmGuksuIt nigm:aej:süÚm
GuksuItbUknwgsarFatuminsuT§dUcCasuIlIkatGuksuItEdkGuksuIt nig GaluymIjÚ:mGuksuIt. CaFmμta sarFatu
minsuT§RtUv)ankMNt;eGayticCag5°. RbsinebIeRcInCag 10°plitplenHGackøayCakMe)ar hydraulic.
QuicklimeRtUv)aneKsÁal;fa vaman2cMNat;fñak; KWkal;süÚmx<s; (high-calcium) nig dolomitic.

Quicklime Edlmankal;süÚmx<s;CaFmμtamanm:aejsüÚmG‘uksuItticCag5°. dolomitic quicklime CaFmμta

manm:aejsüÚmBI35° eTA 40°. Quick tictYcEdlmaneKrkeXIjfa ma nm:aej:süÚmG‘uksuItBI 5°eTA35°
EdleKehAfa magnesian lime. lkçN³d¾RbesIrén quicklime KWsmtßPaBénkarlayCamYyTwk. enAeBl
quick lime RtUv)anlay 2 eTA 3 dgénbrimaNTwkeFobCamYynwgTMgn;rbs;va RbtikmμKImIcab;epþImekItman.

kal;süÚmGuksuItpSMCamYyTwkbegáIt)anCakal;süÚmGuIRduksuIt ehIykMedARKb;RKan;RtUv)anbegáItCalMdab;
edIm,IeFVI eGaym:asTaMgGs;RtUvBuH. CalT§plplitplénkarbMEbkFatu kal;süÚmGuIRduksIuty:agesþIg
RtUv)anGENþtkñúg elIépÞTwk ¬nigm:aej:süÚmGuksuIt b¤GuIRduksuIt RbsinebI dolomitic RtUv)aneRbIR)as;va¦.
enAeBlRtCak; GgÁFatum:as;Bak;kNþalrav (semifluide) rwgeTACadIElgRbkdedaysgÁt;PaB RtUv)ancUkeLIg
edayEb:l b¤ekIb dak;Fug. dIElg Quicklime layTwkenH enAeBlRtCak;ehIyeKcUlcitþykeTAErg
EdlCasMPar³EdlRtUveRbIR)as;sMrab;sMNg;. Quicklime KYrEtgEtRtUv)andak;layTwkeGaysBV.
TinñpléndIElgvaERbRbYl GaRs½yelIRbePTén Quicklime kMritdWeRkénkardutkMedA niglkçN³énkar
layTwk nigCaFmμtaTTYl)an 70 eTA 100 ft KIbéndIElgelI quickliem 1 ton. eKalkarN_énkareRbIR)as;
dIElgKWenAkñúgkMe)ar)ayGr enAkEnøgEdlvamantMéléRkElg edaysarEtkMrit)øasÞikrbs;vax<s; b¤PaBgay
RsYleFVIkarrbs;vacUlrYmenAkñúg)ayGr. vak¾RtUv)aneRbIkñúgeBldUcCaTwkfñaMKImIenAkñúgebtugEdr edIm,IbegáIt
PaBgayRsYleFVIkar. vak¾RtUv)aneRbIenAkEnøgxøHdUcCa RsTab;kMe)arbUkbegðIyEdr
EdlKuNsm,tþid¾l¥rbs;va )anmkBIkMrit)øasÞikd¾x<s;rbs;va.
Mson’s hydrated lime



hydrated lime RtUv)anerobcMBI quicklime edaykarbEnßmnUvbrimaNkMNt; énTwkeTAlIva. bnÞab;BI
GuIRdatkmμbBaÄb;edIm,IvivtþkMedA plitplCalT§plKWCa emSAm:t;s¶Üt. bnÞab;mkvaRtUv)ancMnat;fñak;edayvIFI
aiz-classification edIm,IykecjnUvTMhMRKab;l¥itEdleKminR)afñacg;)anehIy manTMhMFMCagxñat ehIyRckkñúg

fg;EdlmanTMgn; 50lb. vaEtgEtCaplitplEdlplitedayeragcRk EdlcMENkÉdIElg quicklime
PaKeRcInEtg EtCaplitplEdl)anBIkarlayenAnwgkEnøgkargar.
Mason’s hydrated lime KWCa hydrated lime EdlsmRsbeRbICamYykMe)ar)ayGr kMe)arbUkRsTab;

base-coat nigebtug. vacaM)ac;GnuvtþtamsmasPaBén Quicklime. hydrated lime
Edlmankal;süÚmx<s;RtUv )anpSMeLIgCadMbUgedaykal;süÚmGuIRduksIut. hydrated lime dolomitic
FmμtaRtUv)anpSMeLIgedaykal;süÚm GuIRdúksuItbUknwg m:aej:süÚmGuIRduksuIt.
lkçN³)øasÞikénkMe)ar)ayGrEdleFVIBI mason’s hydrated lime Fmμta ¬RbePT N¦ KWmanlkçN³mFüm.
vamanlkççN³l¥RbesIrCagkarlayedaysuIm:g;t_PaKeRcIn b:uEnþvaminman lkçN³x<s;esμInwgkMe)ar)ayGr
EdllayedaybrimaNesμIKña éndIElglayTwkeT. dMeNIrkarFmμtaén GuIRdatkmμ énQuicklime
enAsMBaFbriyakaspþl;nUvGuIRdatkmμénkal;süÚmGuksuItnwgbMElgeTACam:aejsüÚm GuIRdUsuIt.
lT§plenHRtUv)aneGayeQμaHy:agdUcenHfa special hydrated ¬RbePT S ¦EdlminEmnmanEtsarFatu
sMxan; magnesia cUlrYmGuIRdatkmμsBVeT b:uEnþvamankMrit)øasÞikx<s;Pøam² enAeBlvaesImedayTwk. kMe)ar)ay
GrEdllayBIRbePT S gayRsYleFVIkarCag)ayGrlayCamYyRbePT N.
tamBit hydrated lime RbePT S gayRsYleFVIkaresÞIrEtdUc)ayGrlayCamYydIElg Quicklime Edr
ehIydUcenHGñkeRbIR)as; Hydrated lime RbePTenHmanPaBgayRsYledaysarplitplenHRckkñúgkBa©b; nig
mankMriténkargayRsYleFVIkarx<s;edayKμaneRKaHfñak; EdlGacekItmandUc Quick lime layTwkeT.
Finishing hydrated lime
Finishing Hydrated lime saksmübMputsMrab;eRbIR)as;enAkñúgkMe)arbUkRsTab;begðIy. vaRtUv)an
kMNt;lkçN³edaykMritBN’sx<s; nigkMrit)aøsÞikx<s;. RKb; Finishing Hydrated lime RtUv)anplit
CaBiessenAkñúg Rsuk Toledo énekaH Ohio BIfμkMe)ar Dolomitic. kMe)ar Hydrate FmμtapSMeLIgeday
kal;süÚmGuIRduksuIt nig m:aej:süÚmGuksuIt. enAeBlvaesImdMbUg vamanlkçN³)øasÞikmanxøaMgdUc mason’s
hydrated lime RbePT NeT. eTaHbICay:agNa vamanPaBxusKñaenAeBleRkay EdleRkayBIkarRtaMTwk



eBjmYyyb; Finishing hydrated lime begáInnUvkMrit)øasÞikrbs;vax<s;Nas;Edl mason’s hydarted Lime

bgðajnUvTMnak;TMngénPaBlUt las;énlkçN³)øasÞiky:agtictYcenAeBlRtaMTwk.
1>6 suIm:g;t_erobdæ Masonry ament
suIm:g;t_erobdæ (masonry cement) b¤CYnkaleKcUlcitþehAehAsuIm:g;t_kMe)ar)ayGr (motar cement)
EdlRtUv)anlayCamYynwgxSac; nigeRbIsMrab;begáItCaCBa¢aMgdædUcCa dæ kar:U nigfμ. vaGacCaRbePTmYyén
suIm:g;t_GuIRdUlIkEdl)anbriyayrYcehIy b¤karlayrbs;vaenAkñúgsmamaRtNamYy.
suIm:g;t_erobdætamEbbBaNiC¢kmμxøHRtUv)anlaybBa©ÚlKñaedaysuIm:g;t_ lanning nigkMTicepHpg;fμ
kMe)ar (limestone) CaerOy² mansmamaRtfμkMe)areRcIn 50° b¤60°. enAeBlEdlKμankarkMNt;BIsarFatu
KImInig tMrUvkarlkçN³rUb lkçN³bBa¢ak;y:agc,as;BIsuIm:g;t_erobdæ KWmanlkçN³esrICamFüm.
plitkrxøH )anERbRbYlnUvsmasFatuy:agTUlMTUlayGaRs½yeTAnwgkarRbkYtRbECg lkçxNÐGakasFatu
b¤vtßúFatuesIm EdlGacrk)an. lT§plénkMe)ar)ayGrGacmanlkçN³ERbRbYly:agxøaMg.
1>7 Fly ashes
Pozzolans FmμCatiRtUv)anykecjBI diatomaceous earth/ opaline ehets nig fμPaCn_ (shales) nig

sarFatuepSgeTot.
Fly ashes RtUv)anplitecjBIcMehHFüÚgfμCaTUeTA enAkñúgsßanIym:asuInGKÁisnI (electrical generating

station) . kMeTcepHEdlCaFmμta RtUv)anykecjtamry³bMBg;EpSgEdlykecjtamviFICaeRcIndUcCa

electrostatic precipitators. Fly ash GacRtUvmanTMhMeTAtamkardwkCBa¢Úntamk):al;rbs;GñkpÁt;pÁg;ebtug.

Fly ahses TaMgGs;manlkçN³ Pozzolan EdlGacmanlT§PaBcUlrYmRbtikmμCamYynwg
kal;süÚmGuIRduksuItenAsItuNðPaBFmμtaedImbegáItCasmasPaBCamYynwglkçN³suIm:g;t_.
enAeBlEdlsuIm:g;t_RtUv)anlayCamYynwgTwk RbtikmμKImI ¬GuIRdatkmμ¦ nigekIteLIg. lT§plén
RbtikmμenH KW calcium silicate hydrated (CSH) nigkal;süÚmGuIRduksuIt [Ca(OH) ] . Fly ashes manPaKryén
2

suIlIkUnDIGuksuIt (SiO ) x<s;. enAeBlEdlmanvtþmanCamYynwgsMeNIm Ca(OH) eFVIRbtikmμCamYynwg SiO
2 2 2

edIm,ITTYl)an CSH epSgeTot. Fly ashes RbePT F )anBIlT§plénkardutFüÚgfμexμAPøW (anthracite) rWFüÚgfñ
ekAs‘Ub‘ÍTIm (bituminous) nwgmansarFatu Pozzolan. vaRtUv)anbgðajedaykarRsavRCavnig GnuvtþedIm,Ipþl; nUv
PaBrIkcMerInCaTUeTAénPaBFn;nwg sulfate nigedIm,Ikat;bnßynUvPaBrIkraldalénfμ alkali. Fly ahses RbePT


C )anBIlT§plénkardutFüÚgfμ lignite rWFüÚgfμ subbituminous. edaysarEtlkçN³KImIénFüÚgfμ fly ashes
RbePTC manlkçN³suIm:g;t_edaybEnßmeTAkñúgsarFatu Pozzolon. Fly ash RbePT C Gackat;bnßyPaByUr
GEgVgénebtug EdlvacUlrYmlaybBa©ÚlKña.
2> fμbMEbk Aggregate
fμbMEbkKWCadak;bBa©ÚlKñanUvsarFatuCaeRcIndUcCafμ boulder, fμ cobble, fμkinbMEbk (crushed stone) fμ
gravel, fμ aircooled blast furnace slage, xSac;FmμCati b¤xSac;sib,nimiμtþ nigRKYssib,nimiμtþ nig RKYsFmμCati

Rsal. fμbMEbkGacRtUv)anBN’naeTAtamTMhMCaeRcIneTot.
μ
2>1 fμbMEbkTMgn;Fmμta Normal –weigth aggregates
fμbMEbkRbePTenHmandg;suIetxniC (specific gravity) enAcenøaH 2>0 nig 3>0. CaTUeTAvaRtUv)anEck
eTAtamTMhMxageRkam³
fμ Bounder manTMhMFMCag 6in
fμ Cobble mancenøaH 3in eTA 6in
RKYs (coarse aggregate) manTMhMcenøaHkERBa©g Nº 4 eTA 3in
xSac; (fine aggregate) manTMhMcenøaHkERBa©g Nº 200 eTA Nº 4
sarFatum:t;epHpg; (miniral filler material) qøgkat;kERBa©gelx Nº200
fμbMEbkTMgn;Fmμta EdleRbIenAkñúgsMNg;ebtugPaKeRcIn KW)anBIkarbUmBI)atTenø b¤CIkykBIkñúgdI
nig )anBIkarbMEbkvtßúFatuepSg². ebtugEdlman)anBIkarlayCamYynwgRKYs nigxSac;TMgn;FmμtaCaTUeTAman
TMgn;RbEhl 144 lb/ . 1ft
3

fμ Bounder nigfμ Cobble CaTUeTAmin)aneRbItamTMhMEdl)anEdl)anCIkBIkñúgdIeT b:uEnþRtUv)ankinbMEbk
edIm,IeGaymanTMhMepSg²CaRKYs (coarse aggreagate) xSac;sib,kmμ (manufactured –sand) nigkMeTcepHpg;
(mineral filler) . RKYs gravel nigxSac;EdlekIteLIgedayFmμCatiRtUv)anekIteLIgedayskmμPaBénTwknig

karpøas;bþÚrrdUvkal nigkarnaMykdImkcak;kñúg)atTenø. sarFatuTaMgenHmanragmUl épÞrelag nigkarEbgEck
TMhMénRKab;edaydMeNIrkary:agtictYc. sarFatuTaMgenHGacpÁt;pÁg;tamTMhMCaRKYsnig xSac;.



xSac;KWCasarFatuEdlqøgkat;kERBa©gTMhM 3¼8 in 100%. RKYsmanvtßúFatuEdlmanTMhMeTIelIkERBa©g
elx 4.
fμbMEbkmanbrimaNmaDKitCaPaKryeRcInCageK enAkñúgebtugsuIm:g;t_ lanning kMe)ar)ayGr b¤
asphaltic concrete . enAkñúgkarlayCaebtugsuIm:g;t_ lanning RKYsnwgxSac;cUlrYmRbEhlBI 65 eTA 70° én

maDrbs;l,aysarub. sMrab; asphaltic concrete fμbMEbkcUlrYm 75 eTA 85°énmaDrbs;l,ay. CalT§pl
fμμbMEbk KWCasarFatubMeBjminkMerIk. lkçN³fμbMEbkGacbgðajBIT§iBleTAelIRbBn½§CIvit nigPaByUr GEgVg
énebtugEdlRKYsfμbMEbkRtUv)aneRbIdUcCasuIm:g;t_ lanning , asphaltic concrete, kMe)ar)ayGr b¤fμRkal RKwHfñl;
(aggregate base) .

karGnuBaØati[eRbIR)as;RKYs b¤xSac;sMrab;layenAkñúgebtug b¤kMe)ar)ayGr KWvinicä½yedaylkçN³Ca
eRcInrYmmandUcCa karErgkMNt;TMhMRKab; (gradation) brimaNxSac;qøgkat;kERBa©g Nº 200, PaBrwg (hardness) ,
soudness, TMrg;RKab;/ PaBlMnwgénmaD (volume stability) RbtikmμeTAnwg alkili y:agskþanuBl (potential alkali

reactivity) PaBFn;eTAnwgkarkkCaTwkkk nigkarrlayénTwkkk (resistance to freezing and thawing) nig

sarFatuxniCminsuT§.
2>2 fμbMEbkEdlmanTMgn;F¶n;nig Rsal Heavy weigth and light weigth aggregate
fμbMEbkTMgn;F¶n;rYmman magnitite Edlmandg;suIetxniC (specific gravity) 4>3 barite mandg;suIet
xniC 4>2 limonit mandg;suIetxniC 3>8 EdkpUsV½rmandg;suIetxniC 6>3 nigkMeTcEdkmandg;suIetxniC 7>4.
fμbMEbkTMgn;F¶n;xagelIGaceRbICMnYsfμ gravel b¤fμkinbMEbkedIm,IbegáItCaebtugd¾ENntan;.
fμbMEbkTMgn;Rsal light weigth aggregate
vaGacEbgEckCaBIrRbePTKW eRKagsMNg; (structural) nigminEmneRKagsMNg; (nonstructural) . va)an
BIkarplit ¬eFVIBIdIdæ/ fμPaCn_ b¤silaqñÜn (slate) b¤kMeTcGamn_ EdkpÞúHecjBIL (blast furnace slage) b¤eday
FmμCati (scoria nig pumice) . fμbMEbkenHGacbegáItCaebtugEdlmanPaBFn; nwgkMlaMgTUeTAenAcenøaHBI
3000 eTA 4000 psi PaBFn;énkMlaMgx<s;CagenHk¾GaceFVI)an. TMgn;Éktaxül;s¶Üt (air-dry unit weigth) én
PaBFn;énkMlaMgx<s;CagenHk¾GaceFVI)an. TMgn;Éktaxül;s¶Üt (aiz-dry unit weght) énPaBFn;énkMlaMgFmμta
énebtugTMgn;Rsal ¬ticCag 5000psi¦ enAcenøaHBI100 eTA 115 pcf . PaBFn;Edlx<s;énebtugTMgn;Rsal
manTMgn;Ékta (unitweight) kñúgcenøaH 120pcf.



fμbMEbkTMgn;RsalminEmneRKagsMNg;FmμtaKW vermiculite nig perlite sUm,IEt scoria nig pumice
k¾GacRtUv)aneRbIEdr. sMPar³TaMgenHRtUv)aneRbIenAkñúgebtugEdlmankMralxNÐ½GuIsULg; karBarsMelg nig
kMralminEmneRKagxagelIeK. fμbMEbkTMgn;RsalbegáItebtugEdlmankarcMlgkMedATab Edlmankar
karBarePøIg)anl¥esμIKña. enAeBlebtugenHRbQmnwgkMedAxøaMg bMputsMeNImEdlmanenAkñúgebtug)anERbkøay
y:agqab;BIPaBrav eTACacMhayEdlmanmaDrhUtdl;15dgFMCagmun. cMnYnrn§es<atd¾eRcIn nigmanTMhMFMenA
cenøaHfμbMEbkTMgn;Rsal)anbegáIttMbn;sMBaFFUrRsal (pressure relief region) .
3> TwkfñaMKImIsMrab;ebtug Admixture for concrete
TwkfñaMKImIKWCasarFatuepSgeTotBI suIm:g;t_ lanning Twk nigfμbMEbkEdlRtUv)anbEnßmeTAkñúgebtug
edIm,IEkERblkçN³rbs;ebtug. rYmbBa©ÚleTAkñúgGtßn½yenHvaKWTwkfñaMKImI TwkfñaMEr: dUcCa fly ash nig silica fume
sarFatukarBareRcH/ sarFatuEfmBN’ sarFatusésrsURt nigepSg² ¬CMnYykarbUm/ karBarsMeNIm/
bgá]sμ½n/ Pñak;garkat;bnßykarRCab¦.
3/1 TwkfñaMKImIBIKImI nig BIEr: Chimical and mineral admixture
TwkfñaMKImIRtUv)aneRbICaTUeTAenAkñúgebtugCaGgÁFatuCYykat;bnßybrimaNTwk GgÁFatuBenøÓn nigBnüWt
eBlkk b¤CaGgÁFaturYmpSM.
A GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk

B GgÁFatuBnüWteBlkkrwg

C GgÁFatuBenøÓneBlkkrwg

D GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk nigBnüWteBlkkrwg

E GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk nigBnøÓneBlkkrwg

F GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk kMritx<s;

G GgÁFatubnßybrimaNTwk kMritx<s;nigBnüWteBlkkrwg

TwkfñaMKImIkMritx<s;kat;bnßybrimaNTwk EdlcaM)ac;cUlrYmbegáItCaebtugCaBiessedayminpøas;bþÚr
12° b¤eRcInCagenH.
TwkfñaMKImIkat;bnßybrimaNTwk Water-reducing admixture


TwkfñaMenH)ankat;bnßytMrUvkarTwksMrab;layebtugedayeFVIRbtikmμKImICamYynwg
plitplGuIRdakmμ )anqab;eLIgedIm,IbegáItRsTab;TwkfñaMKImI m:UNUm:UelKulenATwksuIm:g;t_.
RsTab;enH)anEjkRKab;suIm:g;t_ nig kat;bnßytMrUvkarfamBledIm,IeFVIeGayl,ayenH)anhUr.
dUcenHl,ayenHKW “lubricated” nwgCMrujeGayRKab; suIm:g;t_cUlrYmGuIRdatkmμ.
TwkfñaMKImIkat;bnßybrimaNTwkCaFmμtaplitBIGasuIt Lignosulfnic nig GMbilrbs;va
GasuItkabUksuIlicGuIRduksuIt nigGMbilrbs;va b¤ polymer Edl)anBI melamine b¤ naphthalene rWGuIRdUkabUns‘ul
pUNat. bnSMénTwkfñaMKImIEdleRbIenAkñúgl,ayebtugKYrEtRtUvRtYtBinitü nigeFVIBiesaFy:agRbugRbytñ½ edIm,I
Fanafa lkçN³EdleKcg;)anRtUv)anTTYl. ]TahrN_GaRs½yeday kMritlay (dosage) énTwkfñaMKImI nig
lkçN³KImIénsuIm:g;t_ vaGacmanlT§PaBeFVIeGayTwkfñaMKImIBnüWtkarkk nigBenøÓnkarkkrwgénebtug. vak¾
bgðaj nUvkarkt;sMKal;fa TwkfñaMKImIEdlCMrujkarkkrwgFmμta nigBnüWtkarkkRbsinebIkMritlayman
brimaNelIs. elIsBIenHeTot edaysarEtPaBxusKñaenAkñúgPaKry énduMsUlItrvagplitpl )anBI
Rkumh‘unepSgeTotvaEtg EtminmanTMnak;TMngKñaedaypÞal;rvagTwkfñaMKImIEdlmancMNat;fñak;dUcKña. dUcenH
vamansar³sMxan;kñúgkarkMNt;smasPaBKImIy:agRbugRbytñ½ enAeBlRtYtBinitükarRbkYtRbECgénTwkfñaMKImI.
TwkfñaMKImIEdlbegáItBBuHxül; Air-Entraining Admixture
TwkfñaMenH)anbegáItBBuHxül;d¾EsntUcbMputCaeRcInEdlmanenAkñúgebtug edIm,IkarBarebtugBIeGanPaB
bNþalmkBIskmμPaBRcMEdlénkarkk nigkarrlayénTwkkk b¤karEsþgénkarQøanBanénsarFatuKImI.
sMrab;ebtug EdlRbQmnwgkarkk énkarrlayRcMdEdl enaHBBuHxül;pþl;nUvbnÞb;sMrab;rIkdalénTwk
xageRkA nigxagkñúgEdleTaHCay:agNavaGacbNþaleGayeRKaHfñak;dl;ebtug. enAeBlEdlebtugEdlman
BBuHxül;RCabecjmanvisalPaBtictYcCag ebtugKμanBBuHxül;enaHvanigekItmansésqμatictYcbnøayBIsñÚl
énebtugdl;épÞxageRkA. dUecñHsésqμad¾tictYcenHCapøÚvcUlénkarQøanBanénsarFatuKImIeTAkñúgebtug.
TwkfñaMKImIBenøÓnkarkk Set-accelerating admixture
vaRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;kat;bnßyeBlevlaBIcab;epþImlayTwkeTAkñúgsuIm:g;t_ dMbUgénkarcab;dMeNIrkar nig
begáInGaRtaénPaBFn;énkMlaMgEdlTTYl)anedayebtug. TwkfñaMKImIBenøÓnkarkkEdlRtUv)aneRbICaFmμta
eRcInCageK KWkal;süÚmkørIt. eTaHCay:agNa kareRbIR)as;rbs;va KWRbqaMgkñúgkrNIEdlEdkBRgwgnig Edk
prestressing manvtþman. mUlehturbs;va KWfavamanlT§PaBfa GgÁFatuBenøÓnnigbBa©Úly:agesrInUvEdkkørIt



eTAkñúgebtug dUecñHvanwgbgáeGaymaneRcHsuIEdk. PaBEbøkKñaénkareRbIR)as;Twk fñaMKImImYykñúgcMeNamTwkfñaM
KImIEdlminmansarFatukørIt RtUv)aneRbI.
TwkfñaMKImIBnüWtkarkk Retarding Admixture

sMrab;visalPaBxøH TwkfñaMKImIkat;bnßybrimaNTwkFmμtaTaMgGs;BnüWtkarkkdMbUgénebtug.
TwkfñaMKImIsarFatuEr: Mineral Admixture

Fly ashes, pozzolans nig microsilicates RtUv)anbBa©ÚleTAnwgcMNat;fñak;fñaMTwkfñaMKImIsarFatuEr:. eBl
xøHsuIm:g;t_FmμtaGaceRbICaTwkfñaMKImI.
karkarBareRcHsuI Corrosion inhibitor
CaTUeTAEdkBRgwgenAkñúgebtugRtUv)ankarBarRbqaMgnwgeRcHsuIedaysarFatu alkalinity

y:agx<s;énebtug Edl begáItnUvRsTab;GskmμenABIelIépÞEdk. RsTab;enHmansmasFatuEdkGuksuIt (ferric
oxide) EdlCasarFatulMnwg. eTaHCay:agNa enAkñúg b¤enABIelIépÞénEdkGuksuIt (ferric oxid)

KWCasmasFatuEdkGuksuIt (ferrous oxid compound) EdlmanRbtikmμy:agxøaMg. enAeBlEdlsmasFatu
EdkGuksuItcUleTATak;TgCamYynwg sarFatuQøanBan dUcCa chloride oxide vaeFVIRbtikmμCamYyGuksuIEsn
edIm,IbegáItCaduMsUlIt plitpleRcHEdk GuksuIt (iron-oxide corrosion product) . lT§plenH)anbegáIn
TMhMmaDrbs;va4dg nigbegáItkMlaMgrIkFak;kan; EtFMCagPaBFn;énkMlaMgTajpþac;énebtug. lT§plenHkan;Et
eFVIeGayebtugmanlkçN³y:ab;yWnEfmeTot.

enAeBlEdleRcHsuIcab;epþImkekIt vtþmanrbs; chloride enAcenøaHBI1 eTA 1>5lb/yd . ]TahrN_
3

RbsinebIGacmanlT§PaB chloride GacRCabcUlBIxageRkAsñÚlebtug edayykTwkkkecjBIGMbil ebtugGac
RtUv)ankarBaredaypleFobTwk nigsuIm:g;t_kan;EtTabeLIg² b¤begáInbrimaNRKb;dNþb;elIEdkBRgwg b¤BBuH
xül;mankñúgebtug b¤bEnßmTwkfñaMKImIEdlmansarFatukal;süÚmnIRtat rWbEnßmTwkfñaMKImIr)aMgxagkñúg (internal-
barrier) b¤karBarkartUt (cathodic protection) b¤CabnSMénvIFITaMgenH.

edIm,IkarBareRcHsuI TwkfñaMKImI kal;süÚmnIRtatRtUv)anbEnßmeTAkñúgebtugkñúgeBlkMBuglaymþgeTot
(batching) .vamin)anbegáItr)aMglkçN³rUbeTAnwgpøÚvcUlénEdkkørIkeT. va)anpøas;bþÚrlkçN³KImIénebtugEk,r

KYrsmépÞEdk. vtþmanénG‘uksuItEdknIRTIt )anbMElg ferrous oxid eTACa ferric oxide.
sarFatunIRTItk¾RtUv)anRsUbykenAÉépÞénsrésEdkehIy begáInkMlaMgdl;RsTab;Gskmμ ferric oxide.


sMrab;TwkfñaMKImI kal;süÚm nIRTItEdlRtUv)anykmkeRbI kMriteRbIR)as; (desoage) KYrRtUv)anEktMrUv
edaysMrbCamYynwglkçxNÐRbQmrbs;ebtugeTAnwgPñak;gareRcHsuI. épÞRbQmkan;EtFMkMriteRbIR)as;KYrEt
FMEdr. kMriteRbIR)as;d¾RtwmRtUvGacRtUv)ankMNt;eTAelIKMeragmYyeTA KMeragmYyedayQrelImUldæanCamYy
nwgTinñn½ysMrab;esckþIesñIsuMTwkfñaMKImICak;lak;. TwkfñaMKImIr)aMgxagkñúg (internal –barrier) manBIrRkum. RkumTI
mYymansmasFatukarBarRCabTwk nigkarBarRCabsMeNIm. RkumTIBIrmanPñak;garEdlbegáItRsTab;sarFatu
xniCCuMvijEdkBRgwg bEnßmBIelIRsTab;Gskmμ. TwkfñaMKImIRbePTenH)anCMrujsMrab;bEnßmBIelIGRtaEdl)an
kMNt;edayKμanKitBIkarRbQmnwgsarFatukørItdayKitfanwgekIteLIg.
TwkfñaMKImIBN’ Coloring admixture
sarFatuBN’RtUv)anbEnßmeTAelIebtugsMrab;ehtuplsßabtükmμ. vaGacCaG‘uksuItEr: b¤RKab;fñaMBN’
sib,kmμ. sarFatukabUneqABN’exμA RtUv)aneRbICaTUeTAsMrab;sarFatuBN¥exμAEdl)ankat;bnßybrimaNBBuH
xül;EdlekItmanenAkñúgl,ayy:ageRcIn. dUcenHRbsinebIebtugBN’exμARtUv)aneKcg;)ansMrab;ebtugEdltMrUv
eGaymanBBuHxül; ¬sMrab;ebtugEdlRbQmnwgPaBkk b¤rlayénTwkkk b¤karQøanBanénsarFatuKImI¦ enaH
kabUnexμA (carbon black) KYrRtUvEkERbeTACaBBuHxül; b¤eTACaPñak;garbEnßmkekItBBuHxül;EdlGacrYm
bBa©ÚleTAkñúgl,ay. karKitBIl,ay (mix design) KYrRtUv)aneFVIBiesaFn_eRkamlkçxNÐCak;Esþgénkardæan
edIm,IeRbIR)as;enAkñúgsMNg;kardæan. kareRbIR)as;nUvtMrUvkarBN’edayRbugRbytñ½RtYtBinitüsMPar³ ]bkrN_
nigkarbEnßmbrimaNTwkedIm,IrkSanUvPaBminpøas;bþÚrenAÉkardæan.
4> kMe)ar)ayGr nig ebtug Mortar and concrete
4>1 kMe)ar)ayGr Motar
)ayGrRtUv)anpSMeLIgedaysarFatusuIm:g;t_ RKYsfμl¥it xSac;nig Twk. vaRtUv)aneRbIsMrab;eFVIkMraldl;
kargarrabdæ sMrab;bUk nig stucooes nig laybEnßmCamYyRKYsfμFM² køayeTACaebtug. karKitenATIenH
RtUv )aneGayCadMbUgeTA)ayGrenaHEdlRtUveRbIR)as;sMrab;kagarrabdæ nigbUkkMe)ar.
lkçN³rbs;)ayGrERbRbYly:agxøaMg GaRs½yeTAnwglkçN³énsarFatusuIm:g;t_EdlykmkeRbIpl
eFobénsuIm:g;t_ nigxSac; lkçN³ nigkMritcMNat;fñak;xSac; nigpleFobTwknigsarFatusUlIt.



4>2 ebtugsuIm:g;t_B½rEln Portland cement concrete
ebtugsuIm:g;B½rElnCal,ayénsuIm:g;t_ lanning Twk RKYsFM nigxSac; nigsmamaRt énTwkfñaMKImIedIm,I
begáItCam:as)øasÞikEdlmanlT§PaBGaccak; dak; nigbBa©ÚleTAkñúgBum<EdlvanwgrwgeTACam:assUlIt. lkçN³
EdleKcg;)anénebtug)øasÞikenH KWPaBGaceFVIkarrbs;vaPaBGacdak; nigminbMEbksmasFaturYmpSM nigEdlva
GackkeTAtameBlevlaEdleKcg;)an. ebtugEdlrwgKYrpþl;nUvlkçN³esvaEdleKcg;)an³
1> PaBFn;énkMlaMg ¬sgát; nig flexural¦
2> PaByUrGEgVg ¬ minmansñameRbH Fn;eTAnwgkarkk nigkarrlayénTwkkk nigkarvaylukén
sarFatuKIm/ Fn;eTAnwgPaBrMj½r nigbrimaNxül;Edlman¦
3> rUbragemIlBIxageRkA ¬BN’/ épÞmanPaBminRKb;lkçN³¦
lkçN³nimYy² CHT§iBldl;tMélcugeRkayénkarKitl,ay (mixdesign) nigtMélénkarcak;ebtugenA
nwgkEnøg. lkçN³TaMgenHGacTTYl)anBIebtugTMgn;Fmμta TMgn;Rsal nigTMgn;F¶n;.
4>3 ebtugb:UlIEmr Polymer concrete
lkçN³)øasÞikrbs;ebtugCamYynwg Rcv:ak;mU:elKuld¾EvgRtUv)aneKehAfa ebtugb:UlIEmrRtUv)aneKeRbI
R)as;kñúgviFICaeRcInedIm,IbegáInnUvlkçN³rbs;ebtug karCMnYsnUvsuIm:g;t_ lanning EdlcUlrYmpSMCamYynwgl,ay
dUcCaTwkfñaMKImI nigeFVIeGayebtugnwgs‘b;.
ebtugb:UlIEmr dUcCa methyl methacrylate nig polyyester EdlminEq¥tTwk EdlenAkñúgenaHb:UlIEmr
CMnYssum:g;t_ lanning GacmanPaBFn;énkMlaMg nigmU:DuleGLasÞic (modulus of elasticity) FMCagebtugsuIm:g;t_
lanning 2dg. CamYynwgebtugb:UlIEmr creep RtUv)anbnßynig PaBFn;énvdþénkarkk nwgkarrlayénTwkkk

eLIgx<s;. ]TahrN_bnÞab;BIkarEfrTaMTwksMrab;ry³eBld¾xøIbMput eBjmYyyb;kñúgsituNðPaBbnÞb;
ebtugb:UlIEmr )aneRtomxøÜnCaeRscsMrab;eRbIkar EdlpÞúyBIebtugFmμtaEdlRtUvTTYlkarEfrTaMsMeNIm
RbEhlmYys)aþh_ munnwgTTYlbnÞúkBIxageRkA.
m:UNUEmr nigb:UlIEmrGacRtUveRbICaTwkfñaMKImIsMrab;eFVIeGaydUcedImvij nigeFVIeGayépÞénebtugEdlman
PaBy:ab;yWnmanPaBdUcedImeLIgvij. latexe én methyl methacrylate, polyester, styrene, epoxy-styrene,
furan, styrence-butacliene nig vinylindene chloride RtUv)aneRbIsMrab;eKalbMNgTaMgenH. lT§plénkarkkrwg

énebtugmansPaBelOnCagebtugFmμta. TwkfñaMKImIb:UlIEmrk¾GacnwgRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IbegáInlkçN³PaBs¥it én
suIm:g;t_ Lanning. kardak;laybBa©Úlkñúgl,ayCaTwkfñaMKImIlayTwk sMrab;eKalbMNgenH TwkfñaMKImI)anpþl;

Structural Mechanics and Materials

Structural Mechanics and Materials

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