This document provides an overview of key sociologists and concepts related to beliefs in society. It discusses substantive and functional views of religion, as well as social constructivist perspectives. The document also outlines theories of religion such as Functionalism, Marxism, and Feminism. Additional topics covered include defining religion, religion as a conservative or changing force, and arguments regarding the secularization thesis. Links to exam materials like question papers and mark schemes are also provided.

1. What this booklet does –
It provides an overview of all the key sociologists in Beliefs in
Society.
What is does not do –
It does not give an outline of how these arguments can be
juxtaposed. This is for you to do in your revision;
juxtaposition is especially important in the 18mark question
and the essay.

2. Links to exam scripts / specimen mark scheme;
http://store.aqa.org.uk/qual/gce/pdf/AQA-SCLY3-W-SMS-07.PDF
Specimin mark scheme
http://store.aqa.org.uk/qual/gce/pdf/AQA-SCLY3-W-SQP-07.PDF
Specimin question paper
TOPICS THAT WE HAVE STUDIED;
DEFINING RELIGION
Key terms Definitions
This view looks at the substance of religion
itself e.g. For example, Max Weber (1905)
defines religion as a belief in a superior or
Substantive view of religion supernatural power that is above nature and
cannot be explained scientifically. The
substantive view of religion is an exclusive
view
This view looks at the functions of religion.
Marxists and Functionalists take this view;
Functional definitions of religion are inclusive
– allowing us to include a wide range of
Functional view of religion
beliefs and practices that perform functions.
Social constructionists take an interpretivist
approach that focuses on how members if
society themselves define religion. They
argue that it is not possible to produce a
Social constructivist view of religion
universal definition of religion to cover all
cases, since in reality different individuals
and groups mean very different things by
religion.

3. Key terms Definition
A widespread view of religion that
incorporates things that might take on
Inclusivist ‘religious’ characteristics e.g. Bellah’s civil
religion.
A view of religion that places a definite line
between what is religious and what isn’t.
Exclusivist
A view of religious that looks at the ‘inside
out’ – i.e. how people make sense of religion
Social Constructivist and how they collectively define it. Hence,
religion is a ‘social construction’.
NB - Remember, defining religion is not easy. This is a key point you will be making in the
exam. It is a subjective concept, arguably value laden, difficult to operationalise (research
into) and carries with it a degree of sensitivity.
THEORIES OF RELIGION
Functionalism
Malinowski, Durkheim, Parsons, Bellah
Sociologist Concepts /arguments
Totemism; the idea an object may be
selected (often taken from the natural world)
to be a symbol of group membership.
Durkheim Collective conscience – a totem represents
the collective values of that community /
society.
Sacred / Profane – A totem has many
sacred qualities unlike an every day object
which is simply profane (just ordinary!)
Parsons Value consensus – Argues that religion
promotes a value consensus in society.
Trobriand Islands – The Island where
Malinowski did his anthropological study.
Malinowski

4. Psychological functions – Argues that
religion had many important psychological
and social functions.
Bellah Civil Religion – Argued that there can be a
religion of the masses – a civil religion that
cuts across class, gender, different faith
backgrounds, age and ethnicity. An example
is Americanism. This civil religion generates
a widespread loyalty to the nation while also
incorporating supernatural beliefs.
Marxism
Sociologist Concepts / arguments
Opium of the masses – Argued that religion
‘drugs’ working class people into accepting
Marx inequality and distracting them from the
reality of their situation.
False consciousness – As such religion
gives working class people a false
consciousness and a false sense of hope
and security.
Alienation – Marx also sees religion as the
product of alienation; (alienation = to be
separated from something).
Caste System – A good example of a belief
system that reproduces class divides.
Feminism
Those who argue that religion is an expression of patriarchy;

5. Feminist Concepts / arguments
Jean Holm Argues that women nearly always take on a
subordinate role in religion.
Naival El Saadawi Distinguishes between authentic religions
that practice truth, equality and justice and
oppressive religions that promotes
patriarchy.
She argues that religion started to become
patriarchal through the misinterpretation of
religious beliefs by men.
To Beauviour, religion acts in very similar
ways to those in which Marx suggested
Simone de Beauviour religion could act for oppressed classes.
She argued that women are deceived by
religion in to thinking they are equal to men
despite their evident inequality.
Karen Armstrong Sees women’s exclusion from the priesthood
as evidence of their marginalisation.
Woodhead Argues that the exclusion of women from the
Catholic priesthood demonstrates the
Church’s deep unease about the liberation of
women generally.
Those who say it’s not so bad!
Sociologist Concepts / aguments

6. Reminds us that, although religion is
currently patriarchal it hasn’t always been;
Karen Armstrong the early religions often placed women at the
centre.
El Saadawi Although arguing that religion is
misinterpreted by men, religion is not the
cause of women’s subordination.
Woodhead Argues that not all religious custom is
patriarchal e.g. the wearing of the hijab
symbolises liberation NOT oppression.
RELIGION AS A CONSERVATIVE FORCE OR A
FORCE OF CHANGE

7. RELIGION AS A CONSERVATIVE FORCE
1) Religion can often be seen as a conservative force in the sense of being
‘traditional’; defending traditional customs, institutions, moral views, roles etc. In
other words, it upholds traditional beliefs about how society should be
organised.So it is conservative in nature
2) It is also conservative because it functions to conserve or preserve things as they
are. It stabilises society and maintains the status quo. So, it is conservative in
its role.
Those who argue religion is a Key arguments
conservative force
Functionalists see religion as a conservative
force because it functions to maintain social
stability and prevent society from
disintegrating. Durkheim, for example,
believed that individuals are naturally selfish
Functionalism and so religion ensures that this integral
characteristic of humans is not encouraged.
Functionalists such as Durkheim and
Parsons argue that religion reinforces the
collective conscience and therefore
stabilises the individual and wider
society.
Marx sees religion as a conservative
ideology that prevents social change. By
legitimising inequality by offering a false
hope to the working class (proleteriat). By
legitimising this inequality, religion is another
Marxism force used by the ruling class (bourgeoisie)
to prevent the workers from developing a
class consciousness and calling for a
revolution.
Feminists see religion as a conservative
force because it acts as an ideology that
legitimates patriarchal power and maintains
women’s subordination in the family and
Feminism
wider society
Those who argue that religion should be Key arguments
conservative in nature

8. Neo Functionalists (the New Right) also
argue that religion’s conservative force
brings many benefits to society. However,
they suggest that, sadly, religion has lost its
Neo Functionalists
influence (secularisation) and therefore
religious values need to be promoted again.
By promoting religion this will bring back
stability in society.
The in -betweeners;
Those who say religion can be
conservative in nature yet still a force of
change; Key arguments
Steve Bruce The Christian Right in the USA
Islamic Fundamentalism (remember the
case study of the Iranian revolution here).
A focus on fundamentalism Key arguments
• Defines fundamentalism as;
• A group of people who perceive that
there is a challenge to an ultimate
authority, usually a god, in which they
believe.
• These people decide that this challenge
cannot be tolerated.
• They reaffirm their belief in the authority
Donald Taylor that is being challenged.
• They oppose those who have challenged
the established beliefs, and often they
use political means to further their case.
RELIGION AS A FORCE OF CHANGE

9. Sociologist Key concepts / arguments
Steve Bruce The American Civil Rights movement
Max Weber (use your Theory and Methods Calvinism, the Protestant work ethic,
notes to help here). predestined, salvation anxiety, divine
transcendence, instrumental rational action
.
The Calvinists tried to be as instrumentally
rational as possible – paving the making
sense of their salvation anxiety and trying to
deny any luxuries in the process; as their
wealth and success performed a
psychological function for the Calvinists that
allowed them to cope with this salvation
anxiety.
Max Weber argued that religion can help
shape the entire economic system and even
bring radical changes to society as a whole.
This is illustrated in his work on the
“Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Calvinism”. Calvinism encouraged (as a
result of John Calvin’s teachings) the ideals
of thrift, efficiency, denial of indulgent
behaviour and making maximum use of ones
talents.
Neo Marxists – including... Key arguments / concepts

10. Although he recognised that, in the main,
religion was a form of oppression, he did
Friedrich Engels notice that at certain stages in history for
example, religion that stood for the “here and
now” could be used as a rallying cry for the
oppressed.
Antonio Gramsci Counter hegemony
Remember he compared the experience of
coalminers who were religious with textile
workers in Kentucky, USA in the 1930’s
For Billings, working class people can use
their religious faith to challenge the status
quo if they have these three ‘traits’;
• Leadership – The miners benefited
Dwight Billings from strong leadership of intellectuals
– many of whom were lay preachers
and were themselves miners and
trade union activists.
• Organisation and space – The
miners themselves were able to use
independent churches to hold
meetings, whereas the textile workers
lacked such spaces.
• Support – The churches kept miners’
morale high with supportive sermons,
prayer meetings and group singing
whereas, by contrast, textile workers
who engaged in union activity met
with opposition from local church
leaders who branded themselves as
communist.
He recognised that religion can aid social
liberation - particularly if the oppressed take
their discontent to the churches e.g. as in
Latin America.
Otto Maduro
In this way the anguish and demands of the
oppressed can be voiced by the clergy.
Bloch also sees religion as having a dual
character. He argues for a view of religion
that recognises both its positive and negative
influence on social change. As a Neo Marxist

11. Ernst Bloch he accepts that religion can inhibit change,
but he emphasises that it can also inspire
protest and rebellion.
For Bloch, religion is an expression of the
‘principle of hope’ -
The Liberation Theology Key arguments / concepts
Remember Neo Marxists refer to the
Liberation Theology as an example of how
religion is a force of change. Gramsci says
that the Liberation Theology is a good
example of how working class intellectuals
can develop a counter hegemony against the
ruling class;
Liberation theology is a movement which
argues that the Christian gospels show God
as having a particular concern for the
marginalized and oppressed. It sees God’s
action for the poor as a key interpretative tool
in reading the Bible, and a decisive element
in the vocation and mission of the church
Key examples; Jon Sobrino (above)
Jon Sobrino is a Jesuit priest, a highly
regarded scholar and was formerly
theological adviser to the late Archbishop
Oscar Romero of El Salvador – gunned
down by US-backed death squads for his
advocacy on behalf of the poor. Other
Salvadorean priests and theologians were
also killed in the 1980s.
NB – Also note Millenarianism and NRMS here.
THE SECULARISATION THESIS
THOSE WHO ARGUE IT’S OCCURING

12. Secularisation means the decline of religion. But this is not an easy concept to
define.
How can you ‘prove’ that religion has been in decline?
There are two ways of viewing secularisation;
1. Disengagement – This describes how religion has lost its influence over certain
areas of life – such as politics, the family, the economic system etc. And to it has
become ‘detached’ or ‘disengaged’ from our everyday life.
2. Disenchantment – This describes how we have become disillusioned /
disenchanted with religion in giving us a purpose / meaning in our life. We are
more likely to turn to other things now to give us meaning – such as music, fashion,
friends etc.
NB: It’s very important to pick up on this in the exam. Many who rely on the
secularisation argument use statistics to forward their case. Do statistics
really tell the whole story? Think about the methodological limitations of
statistics in this context.
Sociologists Concepts / Arguments
Marx believed that capitalism was the
penultimate era of human society. The final
Marxism era of human society, communism, would
follow the overthrow of capitalism. Within
this final era religion would not be needed.
Protestantism has made us more rational
and it is this rationality which has now come
Weber back to haunt religion! We are using our
logic and rationality to question the credibility
of religion.
Hamilton Agrees with Weber – religion is its own
gravedigger
Sociologists Concepts / Arguments
Adopts an interpretivist view of religion and
argues the above; Protestantism tended to
demystify the world and, in turn, created a

13. plurality of life worlds. As such,
Protestantism had the effect of sidelining
Berger religion; it was a victim of its own rational
thought.
Argues that we have gained a technological
worldview of the world now which tends to
Steve Bruce marginalise religion as a result.
With the decline of the community, religion
has lost its functions. Religion can no longer
Bryon Wilson claim to hold a monopoly over the truth.
THOSE WHO SAY RELIGION IS JUST ADAPTING NOT
DECLINING
NB: It is here where you will talk a lot about the post modern argument and religion.
Those with a * are Post Modern arguments.
Sociologist Key concepts / arguments
Argued that religion, through the industrial
revolution, went through a process of
Talcott Parsons structural differentiation; in a way,
therefore, it didn’t become less important it
just became more streamlined.
Interestingly, Berger (1999) changed his
views on religion and now argues that the
Berger increasing diversity and choice present
in our society actually stimulates interest
and growth in religion.
Beckford (2003) agrees, suggesting that,
with increased choice and diversity, while
Beckford some may choose to be less religious, there
is an increasing potential for people to make
the choice to strengthen their religious views
too
Sociologist Key concepts / arguments
Stark and Bainbridge argue that those who
argue that secularisation is occurring are
very Eurocentric – i.e. they are focused on
the decline of religion in Europe and fail to

14. see that religion is on the rise elsewhere.
According to Stark and Bainbridge,
therefore, there is always a market for
Stark and Bainbridge religion. Indeed, religion is attractive
because it acts as a compensation from the
economic market – where people can’t quite
get what they want through the economic
market, they will turn to the religious market
to get what they want. This is known as the
religious market theory.
Stark and Bainbridge argue that the main
factor that shapes the level of religious
participation is not the level of demand but
rather the amount of supply.
So, the more supply there is the more
demand it will generate. This is known as
the supply led argument.
Norris and Inglehart argue that the reason
for variations in religiosity between societies
is not different degrees of religious choice,
but different degrees of existential
Norris and Inglehart security.
By this, they mean ‘the feeling that survival
is secure enough that it can be taken for
granted’. Hence, poorer countries are more
religious than richer countries.
Argues that religion isn’t in decline, it is just
that it is becoming increasingly privatised.
Grace Davie
I.e. Less and less people publicly
expressing their faith.
Another key concept here is vicarious
religion; This means that a large group of
people will use religion at less frequent
periods; only in important less changing
events – so religion is still very relevant.
Sociologist Key concepts / Arguments
Argues that religion has been displaced
(i.e. shifted in form) and is increasingly
finding a new existence in the media e.g.
televangelism.
David Lyon *

15. Argues that with the increasing diversity of
religion people are becoming spiritual
Daniel Hervieu-Leger * shoppers, picking and mixing what they
wish to believe in.
It is NRM’s that benefit here as they take on
a syncretic tendency – i.e. ready made
mixture of beliefs!
Argue that religion is becoming more not
less important in a late modern / post
Bauman and Giddens * modern world.
Argues that fundamentalism is a good
example of how religion is not declining.
Castells * Fundamentalism comes about because it a
resistance identity against globalisation
and post modernism.
Other key concepts with post Decline of metanarratives, reflexivity,
modernism fragmentation, globalisation,
uncertainty, choice, hybrid identity,
media saturation
GLOBALISATION AND RELIGION
*Remember to challenge the term globalisation if a question on this.
Remember too, the argument that religion is the ORIGINAL GLOBALISER
Those who argue that globalisation has a negative impact on religion;

16. Sociologist Key concepts / arguments
Sees globalisation as causing more
fundamentalist tendencies.
Giddens
Argues that globalisation also causes more
fundamentalist tendencies.
Bauman
Argues that fundamentalism is a resistance
identity.
Castells
Looks at two types of fundamentalism;
fundamentalism in the west and
Bruce fundamentalism in the developing world.
**Remember to look at Iran and Poland as two good case studies here in illustrating
how.
Those who argue that globalisation can have a positive impact on religion
Sociologist Argument / Key concepts
As well as globalisation being potentially
damaging it can ‘enhance our productive
Manuel Castells capacity, cultural creativity and
communication potential’.
Looks at how globalisation has been
beneficial to religion in India; giving Indians
Meera Nanda an ultra nationalism and reinforcing Hindu
beliefs among middle class Indians.
Looks at Confucianism as a productive
religious belief in the context of globalisation
Gordon Redding – encouraging greater economic productivity,
self discipline and a commitment to self
improvement – values conducive to
globalisation.
Sociologist Key Ideas / Arguments
Looks at Pentecostalism benefitting from
globalisation as it is able to ‘plug into’ local
Lehman beliefs.

17. Pentecostalism, particularly, connects with
the under privileged in both the developing
world and the developed world.
Both imply that religion benefits from
globalisation by opening up to a world market
Stark and Bainbridge (Stark and Bainbridge) by finding a new
existence in the media (David Lyon).
David Lyon
Is globalisation the cause of fundamentalism?
Here’s a sample of what some people said; ‘Globalisation is a very hard thing to
stop, with worldwide media like TV and the internet having so much power now. It is
a no win situation, as some cultures in the world don’t want to be globalised.
Globalisation is guilty of enforcing its ideas on different societies – particularly
western culture on countries like Iran. These countries see globalisation as a threat
and therefore turn to globalisation. In post modernity globalisation is unavoidable’.
Someone went for a different argument;
‘Why does fundamentalism in a ‘neutral’ form need to be tackled anyway; only
extremist forms should need to be tackled as these are the ones which cause
problems such as terrorism. Globalisation would be a different force to tackle as it’s
an integral part of post modern society – it makes up a lot of world trade and it is
necessary for the economy. The unfairness of globalisation could be tackled as a
way of tackling extremist fundamentalists e.g. stopping the exploitation of workers in
poorer countries. Globalisation should be careful not to impose western values on
non western ones as this will inhibit people from joining fundamentalist religions.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF RELIGIOUS TYPE
CHURCHES, DENOMINATIONS, SECTS AND CULTS

18. Here we are looking at the difference between churches, denominations, sects and
cults.
You have a revision document on this (remember the big A3 grid). It is important,
however, to recognise that it is Ernst Troeltsch that used these terms.
NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS
Sociologist Key arguments / concepts
Coined the term new religious movements
and identified three types;
Wallis
World Affirming Groups – They tend to
accept the world as it is, but may employ
techniques which allow the individual to
participate more effectively and gain more
experience from their worldly experience.
World Rejecting Groups – …whilst many
World Rejecting Groups are very similar to
many sects as they are always highly critical
of the outside world and demand significant
commitment from their members. In some
ways, they are quite like conventional
religions in the sense that they seek to study
sacred text and have strong ethical codes.
They are often millenarian – expecting
divine intervention to change the world.
and;
World Accommodating Groups –
This final category of religious movement is
more likely to be orthodox. They maintain
some connections with mainstream religion
but place a higher value on inner religious
life. They seek to establish older certainties
and faith whilst also giving them a new
vitality.
NEW AGE MOVEMENTS
Sociologist Key concepts / arguments

19. Argues that New Age movements are
characterised by two common themes;
Heelas
Self spirituality –
New Agers have turned away from
traditional ’external’ religions such as
the church and instead have felt it more
necessary to look for the answer
‘within’ themselves and to find
enlightenment. Going further, Heelas
argues that, in the New Age belief it is
the self that is seen as a ‘sacred
object’.
Detraditionalisation –
New Agers have rejected the spiritual
authority of the church and instead
want something far less traditional; new
age beliefs offer this.
Argues that new age movements are a
sign of modernity, not post modernity.
Steve Bruce
Similarly, Heelas argues this point.
GENDER AND RELIGION

20. Sociologist Key Arguments / Concepts
Found that women express greater interest
in religion, have a stronger personal
commitment to it and attend church more.
Also argue women are more religious
because they are socialised to be more
passive, obedient and caring. These are
qualities values by most religions, so it
Miller and Hoffman follows that women are more likely that
women are more likely to be attracted to
religion.
Additionally they also note that women are
more likely than men to work part time, or to
be full time carers. So they have more
scope for organising their time to
participate in religious activities.
Argues that taking care of other family
members increases women’s religious faith
because it offers reassurance to them and
helps with their spiritual and emotional
Greeley welfare.
Argues that women’s experiences in life and
the fact that they may be at a closer
Davie proximity to death (through illness
themselves, through looking after sick
relative, through childbirth etc) makes
them feel it necessary to be religious.
A lot of religions promote the importance of
nature and this is something that, arguably,
Steve Bruce women are more interested in.
Arguably, too, women are more likely to be
more analytical of their feelings than men.
Callum Brown Religion encourages this inner soul
searching that many women may crave.
Glock and Stark Argue that people may participate in religion
because it compensates for what women may
Stark and Bainbridge lack.
Finally;
Sociologist Key Argument / Concepts

21. Notes the drastic decline in drastic decline’ in
church going among women aged 30-45.
Brierly
ETHNICITY AND RELIGION

22. Sociologist Key concepts / Arguments
Cultural Defence - Bruce argues that
religion in such situations offers support and
Steve Bruce a sense of cultural identity in an uncertain
or hostile environment.
Argues that religion among minorities can be
a basis for community solidarity, a mean’s
Bird of preserving ones culture and language,
and a way of coping with oppression in a
racist society.
Cultural Transition - This is an explanation
that Will Herberg (1955) gives for the high
Will Herberg levels of religious participation among first
generation immigrants in the USA – religion
allows first generation immigrants to cope
with the cultural transition from one culture to
another.
Bruce sees a similar pattern in the history of
immigration into the UK, where religion has
provided a focal point for Irish, African
Caribbean, Muslim, Hindu and other
communities.
Also found that cultural transition caused
African Caribbean’s to seek solace in
Ken Pryce religion.
Sociologist Key concepts / Arguments
Found evidence of a decline among all ethnic
groups in religious belief.
Modood et al
AGE AND RELIGION

23. Sociologist Key Arguments / Concepts
Looked at two explanations for why older
people (with the exception of those over 65)
Voas and Crocket are more religious;
• The ageing effect
This is the view that people turn to religion as
they get older. As we approach death we
‘naturally’ become more concerned with
spiritual matters and the afterlife, repenting
our past misdeeds etc.
As a result we are more likely to go to
church.
• The generational effect
This is the view that as society becomes
more secular, each new generation is less
religious than before. Thus, there are more
old people than young people in church
congregations today, simply because for the
older generation religion is more important to
them than the new, younger generation.
RELIGION, SCIENCE AND IDEOLOGY

24. SCIENCE AS AN OPEN SYSTEM
Figure Key Arguments / concepts
Argued that science is an open system
Karl Popper Also that it is cumulative and;
Is governed by a process of falsification
which makes it a very progressive belief
system.
Sees science as characterised by;
Merton Community – all scientists share a common
set of beliefs and principles and research is
published within this community.
Universality – There is a standardised,
objective and unicversal set of scientific
criteria in place to which all scientists abide
by.
Disinterestedness / Directness – Scientists
are not interested in any thing else but to
advance scientific understanding.
Organised Sceptism – There is a respect of
each other but this respect is based upon a
healthy sceptism of each others work.
These characteristics are known as the
CUDOS principles – very important to know!
RELIGION AS A CLOSED SYSTEM
Sociologist Key Arguments / Concepts
He distinguishes between open and closed
belief systems and argues that religion
remains a closed belief system because it
refuses to open to change / scrutiny and
Robin Horton
makes knowledge claims that cannot be
over-turned.
Sociologist Key Arguments / Concepts

25. Argues that religion, by being a closed
system is digging its own grave.
Hamilton
Looks at how religion, by being a closed
system, tries to explain away things.
Evans Pritchard
Evans Pritchard looks at the Azande in
Sudan as an example of this.
SCIENCE AS A CLOSED SYSTEM / NOT AS GOOD A SYSTEM AS IT
PORTRAYS.
Sociologist Key concepts / Arguments
Argues that scientists work within a
paradigm (a set way of thinking /
behaving) which shows how science is a
more closed system than it potrays itself to
Kuhn be.
Argues that science develops in a chaotic
way and the advances of science have not
Feyeband been gradual.
Argues that science is socially constructed
and so it is open to flaws, assumptions and
Knorr Cetina invalidity.
Argues that scientists are engaged in
making sense of the world in just the same
Steve Woolger way as anyone else
Point out how scientists allow themselves to
be influenced by big business.
Philo and Miller
Argues that science is simply one version of
the truth.
Bauman
Looks at how science has tried to become
dominant in a post modern society. Uses the
Foucalt methods of deconstruction and semiology
in investigating this.
SCIENCE IS A FAR MORE OPEN AND THEREFORE MORE ACCEPTABLE BELIEF
SYSTEM THAN RELIGION. DISCUSS
FOR THOSE WHO AGREED WITH THE STATEMENT

26. You pointed out the achievements of science.
You highlighted the arguments of Popper and Merton.
You made the claim that science, as its testable, falsifiable and therefore progressive, has
the right to call itself a more acceptable belief system than religion itself.
HOWEVER
Those who challenged this argument argued;
How can science be a more open system when its influenced by big business and when it
may be inherently conservative in nature (see Kuhn’s paradigms).
One made the point, how does being an ‘open’ system mean that it is more acceptable?
One also put forward the point that people are increasingly becoming dissatisfied with
science – so how can it claim to be an acceptable belief system?
Many argued that if science was such an acceptable belief system, how can it explain the
damage it has done (and arguably will do in the future?)
Some said that if science is an open system surely that means that it lacks any certainty and
will always remain an ‘uprooted’ system.
FOR THOSE WHO DISAGREED WITH THE STATEMENT
You highlighted the problems with science by referring to Kuhn, interpretivism,
ethnomethodology, Marxism, Feminism and Post Modernism.
You argued that religion has a positive, universal function.
You also argued that it has an eternal function because it has a ‘spiritual underpinning’
You also argued that one musn’t generalise with religion – many aspects of religion are
more open than science.
HOWEVER
Those who challenged this argument argued that religion, by its mere nature, is inherently
closed,
And, by refusing to change it is sealing its own fate.
You also argued that religion causes much conflict – in that way how can it be an acceptable
belief system.
Some highlighted the corruption within religion that undermines its legitimacy.

27. Finally many argued that religion cannot compete with science.
YET
I have to side with those who said that we cannot compare the two – it would be wrong to do
so – we should not reduce the debate to a false dichotomy – i.e. a false set of options
between science and religion
IDEOLOGY
Sociologist Key concepts / Arguments
Argued that there exists a dominant ruling
class ideology that promotes a false
Marx consciousness.
Argued that working class people need to
wake up from this and to develop a true
class consciousness, turning from a class
in itself to a class for itself.
Developed Marx’s ideas. Argued that
working class people experience a dual
Grasmci consciousness – they have this ruling class
ideology (hegemony) imposed on them but
also contrast it with their own situation.
Argues that working class intellectuals can
get together to form a counter hegemony
that punches through the dominant.
Argued that we need to create a free
flowing intelligentsia which stands above
Mannheim the ideological conflicts.
Describes how ideas from science have
been used to justify excluding women from
education. She quotes C19th male doctors,
scientists and educationalists expressing the
Pauline Marks
view that educating females would lead to
the creation of ‘a new race of puny and
unfeminine’ females and ‘disqualify women
from their true vocation’, namely the
nurturing of children.