Pasture Management and Fodder Production

Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Animal Nutritionist
Managing Director
GRASS AND SHRUBS,
THE ORIGINAL SALAD BAR

Understanding Nutrient
Requirements
KEYS FOR SUCCESS
Adjust diets according to stage of production
Proper Forage Managment
Treating forages like crop with GAP is critical for
longterm profitability and pasture health.
Precision Nutrition
Understanding the nutrient profile of your inputs
reduces costs. The use of NIR technology reduces
time and increases productivity

PSA: Small Ruminant
Nutrition Presentation
https://www.linkedin.com/in/tanikadennie/
Old presentations on nutritional strategies

Ionophores in
Diets
• The inclusion of ionophores reduces
energy loss
• Ionophores act to alter the rumen
microflora
• decreases microbes that
produce acetate and butyrate
• increases the microbes that
produce propionate, the
gluconeogenic precursor

Nutrient Requirement and Nutritional
Recommendations
1.Maintenance –
2. Production –
• (i) growth -main period weaning to attaining mature weight.
• (ii) gestation- pregnancy make demands on the dam which must be met by
the feed nutrients. Foetus increase rapidly in the last two months place
heavy demand on the dam.
• (iii) lactation –require high levels of energy and protein to produce milk for
Lambs/kids or human consumption.

Extra Activity
If ruminants are kept at pasture and have to cover long distances or graze sparse
vegetation such as in the dry season to find their food, then provision has to be
made to meet these extra requirements. In practice this additional nutrient need
would be cost to maintenance requirement of the animal and may increase
requirement between 25 to a much as 50%.

The Nutrient Requirements for Meat and
Fibre Producing Goats 1, 2
Nutrient Young Goats 3 Does (80 lb) Buck
(80-120 lb)
Weanling
(30 lb)
Yearling
(60 lb)
Dry
(Pregnant)
Lactating
Avg Milk High Milk
Daily Feed, lb 2.0 3.0 4.5 4.5 5.0 5.0
TDN, % 68 65 60 60 65 60
Protein, % 14 12 10 11 14 11
Calcium, % 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.4
Phosphorus,
%
0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2
1 Nutrient Requirements of Goats. 1981. National Research Council.
2 Pinkerton, F. 1989. Feeding Programs for Angora Goats. Bulletin 605. Langston University, OK.
3 Expected weight gain >.44 lb / day.
Adapted from Mohammed et al., 2014

Feed curve utilization
• Supplements are not appropriate for all
times of the year
• Utilize the information provided about
rainfall (quality and quantity) to
determine if supplementation is needed
at all

Example 1. Calculating forage and concentrate
needs for does
Assumptions:
1. Target animal: Mature doe
2. Body weight (kg): 50
3. DM intake as % body weight: 4%
4. Actual dry feed intake (kg): 2 [4% of 50 kg]
5. Rule of thumb: - Forage and concentrate fed in the ratio of 60%:40%
of DM

Use Excel to Calculate Requirements

Use of Forages and other
supplements
(Slides from my days at Bodles Research Station)

Forages are Crops and should be treated as
such
• Three types of forages:
• Grasses (average CP 10.6%)
• Legumes (19.4% CP)
• Non – leguminous shrubs and
trees (> 12%CP)
• Managing leaf:stem ratio is
important
• Fertilize
Feed value of fodder decreases with growth stage at
harvest

https://manoa.hawaii.edu/ctahr/tpalm/pdfs-
marianas/pdfs/vol_one/3_Plant%20Growth%20Basics%20and%20Forage%20Resources/plantgrowthbasics.pdf

Six Key Principles for Successful Silvopasture
in Jamaica
• Introduction to Silvopasture: Integrating trees with agricultural production holds promise for
Jamaican farmers, offering multiple benefits for sustainable farming practices.
• Flexibility in Land Use: Silvopasture can be established in existing woodlands or by introducing
trees into pastureland, with careful consideration given to sensitive areas and existing
ecosystems.
• Strategic Ecological Management: Modifying the ecological balance to support forage growth is
essential, whether in existing forests or open pasture settings.
• Appropriate Animal Selection: Matching animals to the land type and stage of succession is
crucial to minimize environmental damage and optimize ecosystem health.
• Rotational Grazing: Implementing rotational grazing practices is essential for optimizing forage
quantity and quality while promoting landscape health and animal welfare.
• Tree Diversity and Functionality: Selecting tree species that serve multiple functions beyond
shade, such as producing fruits, nuts, or timber, is key to long-term success.
• Long-Term Planning and Management: Consideration of long-term goals and adaptive
management strategies are essential for realizing the full potential of silvopasture in Jamaica.

Annual DM production (ton/ha) of mulberry
https://www.fao.org/livestock/agap/frg/mulberry/Papers/HTML/Boschini.htm
Spacing Cutting DM Produced Leaf: Stem
(cm) Height (cm)
Frequency
(days)
Whole
Plant
Stems Leaves Ratio
60 30 56 18.3 7.1 11.2 1.6
60 30 84 25.1 11.4 13.7 1.2
60 30 112 40.6 21.6 19 0.88
60 60 56 24.4 9.2 15.3 1.75
60 60 84 35.8 16.3 19.5 1.19
60 60 112 30.9 15.8 15.1 0.94
90 30 56 10.2 4 6.2 1.63
90 30 84 16.5 7.8 8.6 1.11
90 30 112 26.8 14.5 12.3 0.85

Pasture Management
❖Understanding the nutrient requirements of
the goats
❖Optimizing nutritive value of grazed pasture
❖Promoting maximum intake of
grazed/conserved herbage
❖Optimizing the use of feed concentrates
as pasture supplements
❖Adjusted based on models and actual
production
Norman Williams

Pastures
Utilization and Management
• Pastures are utilized in two ways:
• Grazing – animals are allowed to do their own harvesting.
• During this process they return organic matter to the system.
• Cutting or zero-grazing – forage is harvested and brought to the animal.
• During this process there is no return of organic matter to the system.

Grazed Pastures
Systems of Utilization
• Rotational Grazing – a system in which a single pasture is subdivided
into smaller paddocks and animals are moved from paddock to
paddock in a systematic pattern.
• e.g. An 8 - paddock , 4 - day rotation will give each paddock a 28 day
rest period .
• In choosing a cycle one must consider the species being grazed since
different species have different recovery rates.

• Set-Stocking – also known as continuous grazing.
• This is a system in which animals remain on the same pasture for an extended
period of time.
• This system is not recommended for intensive livestock production.
Grazed Pastures

https://etools.mla.com.au/src/#/sheep

Grazed Pastures
• Occasional Grazing – in this system grazing is limited to restricted
areas set aside for specific periods such as during a dry spell(forage
banks).
• Leguminous trees or shrubs are the species generally utilized in this system.
• These trees or shrubs should be cut back 2 or 3 times each year to prevent
them becoming too tall or woody.

Cutting/Zero Grazing Systems
• Forages harvested for daily feeding (green chop).
• Forages harvested for conservation.
• Forages harvested from forage banks during dry periods.

Zero Grazed Pastures
•Allows for an increase in
carrying capacity
•Allows for the production of
high quality feeds for specific
groups
•Reduces losses from trampling
and selection
Disadvantages
• Labour intensive or heavy machinery
required
• Forage will be harvested and
transported and should
therefore be located close
Advantages

The steps to establish
a proper pasture
program and fodder
conservation program:
1. Define Objectives
2. Plant Selection
3. Site Selection
4. Weed Control
5. Soil Management
6. Establishment
7. Maintenance
8. Fodder Conservation
9. Monitoring and Evaluation

Local versus
Imported Grasses
What is the best grass for my farm?
Fertilization
Irrigation
Pest Management
Harvesting Interval

Case Study
❖ Farm in Nightingale Grove
❖ Mombassa was irrigated
❖ Wild tamarind was
interspersed
❖ Planted in row

Sorghum-Sudan Grass
❖Planted March 2023 after
rains
❖Soil was ploughed, harrowed
and raked
❖Planted by mist blower
❖4 experimental plots
❖Pest control by week 3
❖Flood irrigation AFTER
germination

https://photos.app.goo.gl/i5DVFPVdByhVNac96

Heat Stressed Sorghum-Sudan Grass

Keeping Weeds in Check (Part 1)
❖Let’s discussing the importance of weed control in your pastures.
❖Weeds compete with your desirable forage species for sunlight, water, and
nutrients, ultimately reducing the quality and quantity of available feed for your
goats.
❖After your seeds germinate, it's crucial to implement weed control measures
promptly to prevent weeds from establishing and spreading.
❖Yield losses due to weed competition have been reported to range from 40 to
74%

Keeping Weeds in Check (Part 1) cont’d
❖One effective method for weed control is the use of herbicides like 2-4D.
❖2-4D targets broadleaf weeds while sparing most grass species, making it a suitable
choice for pasture management.
❖ Lowest level of resistance in weeds
❖Timing is key when applying herbicides.
❖The best time to spray is after the grass seeds have germinated.
❖As with all chemical 2-4D can be hazardous is used incorrectly so be sure to follow label
instructions and apply during the appropriate growth stage of the weeds.

Enhancing Herbicide
Performance with Adjuvants
❖An adjuvant is any substance added to herbicide
formulations or spray tanks to improve herbicidal
activity or application characteristics.
❖Categories of Adjuvants
❖Special Purpose Adjuvants
❖Expand the range of conditions for effective
herbicide use.
❖Modify physical characteristics of the spray
solution.
❖Examples: compatibility agents, buffering
agents, antifoam agents, drift control agents.
❖Activator Adjuvants
❖Enhance postemergence herbicide
performance.
❖Increase herbicide activity, absorption into
plant tissue, rainfastness, and
photodegradation resistance.
❖Examples: surfactants, crop oil
concentrates, nitrogen fertilizers, spreader-
stickers, wetting agents, penetrants.

Fertilizing the Smart Way
❖Now let's delve into the topic of fertilization and how to optimize nutrient
management in your pastures.
❖Focusing fertilization efforts way from the field margins allows for targeted
application and maximizes the efficiency of nutrient uptake by your forage plants.
❖Consider liquid fertilizer
❖By identifying and addressing nutrient deficiencies in specific areas of your
pastures, you can enhance forage quality and productivity.

Fertilizing the Smart Way cont’d
❖When considering fertilizer options, it's essential to evaluate the benefits of
applying urea directly to the land versus providing it to your animals.
❖Direct supplementation to animals may offer a more immediate nutritional
benefit, while land application can contribute to soil fertility and forage
growth over time.
❖Assessing your farm's specific needs and objectives will help determine
the most suitable fertilization approach for your operation.

Fertilizing the Smart Way cont’d
❖When considering fertilizing plans,
the pH of the soil must be taken
into consideration
❖Consider mineral fertilizer
encapsulation.
❖Slows down the release of nutrients to
prevent soil erosion and control the
release of target components

Navigating Fertilizer Costs (Part 1)
❖Let's talk about how fluctuating crop prices, such as corn, can
impact fertilizer costs and availability.
❖When corn prices are low, fertilizer prices often follow suit due to
decreased demand for nitrogen-based fertilizers.
❖Taking advantage of lower fertilizer prices during periods of
economic downturn can help reduce input costs and improve the
profitability of your goat farming operation.

Navigating Fertilizer Costs (Part 1) cont’d
❖It's essential to stay informed about market trends and adjust your fertilizer
purchasing decisions accordingly.
❖By monitoring crop prices and fertilizer market conditions, you can
strategically time your fertilizer purchases to capitalize on cost-saving
opportunities.
❖Collaborating with local agricultural extension services or industry experts
can provide valuable insights and guidance on navigating fertilizer costs
effectively.

Feeding the Soil for legumes
❖Let's shift our focus to legume cultivation and the unique fertilization
requirements of these crop.
❖Unlike corn and other plants from the grass family, legumes have the
ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through symbiotic relationships with
nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules.
❖This natural nitrogen fixation process reduces the need for
supplemental nitrogen fertilization, making soybeans a cost-effective
option for rotation in your pasture management plan.

Feeding the Soil for legumes cont’d
❖While legumes may not require additional nitrogen fertilization, it's still
essential to maintain balanced soil fertility to support overall crop health
and productivity.
❖Incorporating organic matter through practices like cover cropping and
crop rotation can improve soil structure, nutrient retention, and microbial
activity, benefiting both soybean yields and subsequent pasture growth.
❖By adopting sustainable soil management practices, you can optimize soil
health and enhance the long-term productivity of your goat farm.

Grass - Legume Combinations
❖Advantages
❖Improvement in nutritive value of
forage on offer
❖Possible nitrogen fixation in soils
❖Ground cover to prevent weed
growth
❖Limitations
❖Difference in optimal harvest
intervals for the two species results
in non –persistence of the legumes.
Siratro/Pangola grass

The Unexpected Link: From Non-Ruminant Nutrition to
Unifying Animal and Soil Health
❖Let's explore the connection
between animal nutrition and soil
health
❖There is intricate relationship
between ruminant digestion and the
rumen microbiome.

From Non-Ruminants to Ruminant Microbiome
❖These microbial communities
break down tough plant fibers in
the rumen
❖Allowing ruminants to extract
essential nutrients from their
diet, similar to the gut health of
non-ruminant animals.

The Microbiome and
Soil Health Connection
❖The soil food web - a complex network of
microorganisms, insects, and organisms
living in the soil.
❖Just as a healthy gut microbiome is
crucial for animal health, a thriving soil
food web is essential for fertile soil, with
microbes playing a key role in nutrient
cycling, decomposition, and plant growth.

Putting it All Together:
Pastures as Crops and Soil Health
❖By understanding the connections between animal microbiomes and
soil health, we can revolutionize agricultural practices, viewing
pastures as complex ecosystems that require nurturing.
❖Promoting a thriving soil food web involves practices that encourage
plant diversity, deep root growth, and high soil organic content,
creating fertile environments for microbes to thrive.

The Plant-Microbe Symbiosis
❖Similar to the symbiotic relationship in the gut,
plants and soil microbes engage in a mutually
beneficial partnership, exchanging nutrients for
growth and decomposition.
❖When we observe mineral deficiencies in plants, it
often stems from imbalances in the microbial
community, highlighting the importance of
fostering a healthy soil food web.
❖A healthy soil food web = more nutritious forage
for our animals.

Cultivating Win-Win Solutions
❖By fostering a healthy soil food web, we can
cultivate more nutritious forage for our
animals while simultaneously improving soil
health and fertility, creating a win-win situation
for both livestock and land.
❖Embracing the interconnectedness of animal
nutrition and soil health allows us to develop
sustainable practices that promote animal
well-being, soil health, and agricultural
productivity.

How
❖Soil Samples
❖Analysis of results
❖Remediation
❖ Organic vs Inorganic
❖ Litter vs Compost
❖Cutting at the right time and height
❖Grazing at the right time
❖Long-term maintenance
❖Microbiome Management
❖Diversified plant material

Proper Sampling Techniques for
Forage Analysis
❖Identify Sampling Areas
❖Random Sampling
❖Straight line, W and Z method
❖Timing
❖Sample Depth
❖Equipment
❖ Composite Sampling

Pasture Sampling
(a) 'X' transect; (b) 'lazy W'; (c) simple
random; and (d) random stratified sampling
pasture measurement protocols on 1 ha
grazed pasture, with orange circles indicating
measurement locations (n = 20) and blue
dashed line outlining the measurement route
for (a) and (b).

The Process:
❖ Cut grass within randomly placed quadrants across paddocks
❖ Use 3 to 10 quadrants for accuracy
❖ Quadrat size can range from 0.1 sq. m to 1.0 sq. m
❖ Trim grass in quadrat to ground level, cut between 3.5 and
4cm
❖ Grass within each quadrat is the sample representing total
grass
❖ Harvest sample grass, place in bag for weighing (sample 1,
sample 2, sample 3)
❖ Record fresh weight of each sample (weight 1)
❖ Dry samples at 80 degrees Celsius for 20 hours or microwave
for 1 minute
❖ Record dry weight of each sample (weight 2)

The Calculations
❖First, get the average weight of the three samples and take an average of
them.
❖Avg. weight= (weight 1 of sample 1 + weight 1 of sample 2 + weight 1
of sample 3) / 3
❖Next, to get the DM yield to multiply the average weight per quadrant into
the dry matter percentage into the number of quadrants per hectare.
❖DM Yield or Kg DM/ha in the paddock = Weight of grass (kg) x DM% x
40,000 (40,000 quadrant sized pieces make up a hectare)
❖For example, if your average quadrant grass weight is 0.25 kg with 20%
DM content – Your available Grass Cover will be 0.25 kg x 0.20 x 40,000
= 2,000 kg DM/ha.

Advantages of Quadrant Cut Method Disadvantages of Quadrant Cut Method
Very precise, mainly used for research
Prone to errors: quadrants can be too large or
small or spaced inappropriately
Easy to make, can be done independently On-site presence required for fieldwork
Easy to use, minimal training required
Time-consuming and expensive for large
pastures
Easy to carry, requires minimal equipment
Not suitable for uneven grass populations,
frequent measurements needed over long
periods
Inexpensive
Risk of destroying paddock grass during
harvesting and wrong placement
Suitable for measuring grass, no need for
counting unit
Quality of grass (dry or dead) not considered
in measurements
Able to mitigate risks of cloud cover impact
on satellite images

Pasture Collection for Forage Analysis
❖Sample Preparation
❖Transport and Storage
❖Record Keeping
❖Analysis

Interpreting Results
Schematic of laboratory analysis and
chemical constituents of forages
(adapted from Moore et al., 2007);
ADF = acid detergent fiber, ADL =
acid detergent lignin; NDF = neutral
detergent fiber; NDS = neutral
detergent solubles.

Test Acronym Meaning Interpretation
DM Dry Matter > 85% perferable
CP Crude Protein > 8% Perferable
AD-ICP
Acid Detergent Insoluble Crude
protein
ADF Acid Detergent Fibre ADF increases digestibilty decreases. [Ideal ranges 23-40 %]
NDF Neutral Detergent Fibre Ideal range 40-45% , > 45% reduces digestion and intake
NDF om
Neutral Detergent Fibre Organic
Matter
Ash -NDF =NDF om.
Lignin < 10 not ideal
EE(Fat) Ether Extract [crude fat content] Fat content of around 2.5-5% is ideal.
Ash High levels of ash <10% is not ideal.

TrinamiX Report comparing two Grasses

Relationship between fiber
concentration and intake
(adapted from Collins and Fritz,
2003). The first half of the figure
shows that dry matter (DM)
intake increases as fiber
concentration in the forage
increases.
https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/forage-quality-concepts-and-practices

Understanding Soil Test Results for Tropical Pastures
and Fodder Banks
Nutrient Levels:
❖"Optimal" or "excessive" levels mean the soil has more than enough nutrients for plant growth.
❖Adding more of these nutrients won't improve growth and can lead to environmental issues.
❖Excessive phosphorus (P) levels, especially, can cause water pollution and algal blooms.
❖Avoid adding phosphorus if soil levels are in the "medium" to "high" range to prevent waterway
contamination.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC):
❖CEC measures soil's ability to hold and release nutrient ions.
❖Higher CEC is beneficial and typically found in soils with more clay and organic matter.
❖Add organic matter if CEC is less than 10 for improved nutrient retention and soil fertility.

Understanding Soil Test Results for Tropical Pastures
and Fodder Banks
Organic Matter (OM):
❖OM includes living, dead, and decomposing plant matter.
❖High OM improves soil structure, moisture retention, and nutrient availability.
❖Aim for at least 2% OM for healthy soils; regular additions of organic matter
can increase OM levels over time.
Soil pH:
❖pH affects nutrient availability; acidic soils bind nutrients like phosphorus,
limiting uptake.
❖Different plants prefer different pH levels; most prefer 5.5-7.0 range.
❖Buffer pH determines lime requirements for pH adjustment; clayey soils
require more lime due to higher buffering capacity.

pH Ranges for select Grass and Fodder Plants
Common Name Scientific Name Preferred Soil pH
Guinea Grass Panicum maximum 5.5 - 7.0
Elephant Grass Pennisetum purpureum 5.0 - 7.5
Rhodes Grass Chloris gayana 5.5 - 6.5
Napier Grass Pennisetum purpureum 5.5 - 7.0
Bermuda Grass Cynodon dactylon 5.0 - 7.0
Brachiaria Grass Brachiaria spp. 5.0 - 7.0
Buffel Grass Cenchrus ciliaris 5.0 - 7.0
Leucaena Leucaena leucocephala 5.0 - 8.0
Sorghum-Sudan Grass Sorghum bicolor × S. sudanense 5.5 to 8.3
Millet
Various species within the genera Panicum, Setaria, Pennisetum, and
others 5.5 - 6.55

Technology + checklist = Easy Management

Our Profile
A G R I C U L T U R E D O N E R I G H T

About
❖Our core focus is on delivering the right solutions tailored to each unique situation,
all under the manifesto of "Agriculture Done Right."
❖We offer expert consultancy services and provide a range of offerings including
high-quality forage, feed, multi-nutrient blocks, and other supplements.
❖Through our comprehensive approach, we aim to empower farmers with the
knowledge, resources, and support they need to optimize their operations and
achieve sustainable success.
Farm and Animal Nutrition Solutions Limited :
a data-driven solutions-based company dedicated to
enhancing productivity in the agriculture sector while
prioritizing environmental stewardship.

Our Products
❖ Locally manufactured
silage
❖ Hay
❖ Pet food (coming soon)
❖ Multi-nutrient blocks
(coming soon)
❖ Feed Additives
NUTRITITION
SMALL
EQUIPMENT
❖ Ruminant Milkers
(Battery-operated and
Electrical)
❖ Repair and
Maintenance
FARM
MANAGEMENT
❖ Fencing (incl.
installation and
repair)
❖ Task work

Our Services
Establishing Quality Control
Policies & Procedures
Feed Formulation Research Facility for
Independent analysis of
Feed Additives
Review of Diets, Nutrition &
Feeding Programs
Training &
Consultation for
Purchasing, Contracts
& Quality Assurance
Programs
On-Site Technical Visits and
Farm Inspections

Contact Us
www.farmandanimalsolutions.com
info@farmandanimalsolutions.com
98 Pedro Avenue, Spanish Town
+1876-340-3525
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD

Pasture Management and Fodder Production

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