3. Scientists classify organisms and assign each
organism a universally accepted name
4. To organize similar organisms
So all scientists are discussing the same
organisms (species)
Species population of organisms that share similar
characteristics and can breed with one another and
produce fertile offspring
Identified 1.5 million species so far
Estimate 2-100 million have yet to be discovered
5. What tools can we use to show similarities
in organisms?
Cladistic analysis identifies and considers
only those characteristics of organisms that are
evolutionary innovations – new characteristics
that arise as lineages evolve over time
Cladogram – diagram that shows evolutionary
relationships among a group of organisms
6. Modern Evolutionary Classification
Darwin’s ideas about descent gave
rise to the study of phylogeny –
evolutionary relationships among
organisms
Evolutionary Classification – Grouping
of organisms based on evolutionary
history
8. Genes of many organisms show important
similarities at a molecular level. Similarities in
DNA can be used to help determine
classification and evolutionary relationships
9. Swedish botanist that developed a two-word
naming system called BINOMIAL
NOMENCLATURE
Gives the Genus and species name, written in italics or
underlined
Language is usually Latin
Example:
House cat – Felis domesticus
Dog – Canis familaris
Human – Homo sapien
10. Domain (most inclusive, less in common)
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species (less inclusive, more in common)
Each level is called a TAXON; taxa (plural)
11. Black bear Giant Abert Coral
Grizzly bear Red fox
panda squirrel snake Sea star
KINGDOM Animalia
PHYLUM Chordata
CLASS Mammalia
ORDER Carnivora
FAMILY Ursidae
GENUS Ursus
SPECIES Ursus arctos
12. Currently, all organisms are grouped into 1 of
3 domains which reflect evolutionary
relationships
1) Bacteria
2) Archaea
3) Eukarya EUKARYA
ARCHAEA
Kingdoms
BACTERIA Eubacteria
Archaebacteria
Protista
Plantae
Fungi
Animalia
LUCA – last universal common ancestor
13. Contains only one kingdom – Eubacteria
Cell type: Prokaryote
Cell structures: Cells with peptidoglycan
# of cells: Unicellular
Nutrition: Autotroph or heterotroph
Examples: Streptococcus, Escherichia coli
These are your ORDINARY, every-day bacteria.
14.
15. E. coli This bacterium (brown) is being attacked by dozens of
bacteriophages (viruses that attack bacteria)
16. Contains only one kingdom – Archaebacteria
Cell type: Prokaryote
Cell structure: Cell walls without peptidoglycan
# of cells: Unicellular
Nutrition: Autotroph or heterotroph
Examples: Methanogens, halophiles, thermophiles
These are your EXTREME ENVIRONMENT
organisms. Although they are unicellular, they are
probably more closely related to humans than they
are to Eubacteria.
18. Cell type: Eukaryote
Cell structures: Cell walls of cellulose in some
(but not all), some have chloroplasts
# of cells: Most unicellular; some colonial;
some multicellular
Nutrition: Autotroph or heterotroph
Examples: Amoeba, Paramecium, slime molds,
giant kelp, algae
29. Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordate
Class Mammal
Order Primates
Family Hominidae
Genus Homo
Species Sapiens
30. Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordate
Class Mammalia
Order Carnivora
Family Felidae
Genus Felis
Species Domestica
31.
32.
33.
34. Living
Things
are characterized by Eukaryotic
Prokaryotic cells cells
Important
and differing which place them in
characteristics
Cell wall Domain
such as Eukarya
structures
which place them in which is subdivided into
Kingdom Kingdom
Domain Domain
Plantae Protista
Bacteria Archaea
which coincides with which coincides with Kingdom Kingdom
Fungi Animalia
Kingdom Kingdom
Eubacteria Archaebacteria
35.
36. Unicellular prokaryotes (no nucleus)
May be autotrophic or heterotrophic
Equally small, and appear the same
Lack membrane-bound organelles such as
mitochondria, ER, Golgi, Lysosomes,etc.
Have cell walls, cell membrane & ribosomes
DNA is in the cytoplasm in a circular shape
(called nucleoid)
37. EUBACTERIA ARCHAEBACTERIA
More diverse Cell wall lacks
Live almost everywhere peptidoglycan
(other organisms, soil, Different membrane
fresh & salt water) lipids
DNA more similar to
Cell wall contains the eukaryotes than to
carbohydrate eubacteria, suggesting
peptidoglycan eukaryotes descended
from archaebacteria
Live in harsh conditions
38. Ribosome
Cell Cell
Peptidoglycan wall membrane
Flagellum DNA Pili
39. Prokaryotes are identified based on:
1) Shape
2) Cell wall composition
3) Method of movement
41. GRAM-POSITIVE GRAM-NEGATIVE
After “Gram staining” After “Gram staining”
they appear purpleish they appear pinkish
Has thick layer of Has thin layer of
peptidoglycan peptidoglycan
Eg) B. anthracis Eg) E. coli
(Anthrax!) Less often pathogenic
Usually associated with
most pathogenic
bacteria
43. Some don‟t move on their own
Others move by:
1) flagella
2) lash, snake or spiral forward
3) glide slowly along a layer of slime-like material
they secrete
44. Obligate aerobes – must have oxygen to survive
(Obligate means that the organisms are obliged, or required, by their
life processes to live only in that particular way)
Eg) Mycobacterium tuberculosis which causes TB
Obligate anaerobes – killed by oxygen
Eg) Clostridium botulinum can grow in canned food that hasn‟t
been sterilized properly
Facultative anaerobes – survive with or without
oxygen
Metabolic pathways can alternate between using oxygen or not
using it.
Eg) E. coli is a facultative anaerobe that lives anaerobically in the
large intestine and aerobically in sewage or contaminated water.
45. Asexual using binary fission
DNA is replicated, cell splits in two. Similar to
mitosis.
Can happen as quickly as 20 minutes.
46. Mutations – mistakes during DNA replication
Conjugation – the exchange of plasmid DNA
between two bacteria
Can form a pili (tube-like structure) that serves as a transfer
tunnel for the plasmid
Transformation - engulf “naked” DNA from the
environment and incorporate it into their genome
Scientists “transform” bacteria to produce insulin
48. Can form endospores
A thick-walled internal structure that protects the
DNA and some cytoplasm during periods of
environmental stress (drought, temp, lack of
nutrients)
Lay “dormant” (inactive) as an endospore until
environmental conditions improve
49. Disease Pathogen Prevention
Tooth decay Streptococcus mutans Regular dental hygiene
Lyme disease Borrelia burgdorferi Protection from tick bites
Tetanus Clostridium tetani Current tetanus vaccination
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis Vaccination
Salmonella food poisoning Salmonella enteritidis Proper food-handling practices
Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae Maintaining good health
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Clean water supplies
50. Antibiotics – chemicals used to treat bacterial
infection (kill bacteria)
Antibiotic resistance – when populations of
bacteria are no longer killed by a particular
antibiotic
Results from OVERUSE of antibiotics
Happens quickly because bacteria reproduce so
quickly, and “resistant” strains develop rapidly
This is evolution in action!
51. some species live in the roots of plants and help
plants absorb nitrogen from the soil
some decay organic material allowing it to be
recycled
Used in sewage treatment
used to make cheeses, sauerkraut, pickles
used in pharmaceutical industry to make drugs
Some cause disease such as tuberculosis,
syphilis, scarlet fever, food poisoning, Lyme
disease
53. Multicellular except for yeast
Eukaryotic heterotrophs
Extracellular digestion - Fungi secrete enzymes
into the environment, break down organic matter,
then absorb the small nutrient particles
Major decomposers
Most are saprobes – digest nonliving organic
matter
Some are parasites, feeding off other living
organisms
55. Body consists of cells joined to create filaments
Each microscopic filament of a fungus is called
a hypha
Hyphae may form a huge tangled interwoven
network called mycelium which can become
visible
bread mold
Cell walls are made of a polysaccharide called
chitin
56. Nuclei
Cell wall
Cytoplasm
Cross wall
Nuclei
Cytoplasm Cell wall
Hyphae With Cross Walls Hyphae Without Cross Walls
58. Most often is asexual
Filaments break from the main mycelium and grow
into new, identical individuals
Fungus may produce spores
Spores disperse, germinate, divide, and produce genetically
identical fungi
Spores can withstand extreme dryness and cold
Sexual reproduction occurs
No males or females, only (+) and (-) types
Can happen when wandering hyphae meet
59. Lichens are associations between fungi and
cyanobacteria or algae
Cyanobacteria or algae are the photosynthetic elements
Example of mutualism – a symbiotic relationship
where both parties benefit
The bacteria or algae provide nutrients for themselves and the
fungus
The fungus provides water and minerals for their metabolism
Lichens exists in harsh habitats
Can be found on mountaintops, rock faces in the
desert, and tree bark
Often first to enter barren environments, breaking down rocks
– help in early stages of soil formation
60. General structure of lichens
Densely packed
hyphae
Layer of
algae/
cyanobacteria
Loosely packed
hyphae
Densely packed
hyphae
61.
62. Heterotrophic Eukaryotes
Mostly multicelluar
Cell walls made of CHITIN
Mostly DECOMPOSERS and SAPROBES
Use EXTRACELLULAR DIGESTION
Mold, mildew, yeast, mushroom, shelf fungi,
ringworm
64. Includes everything except plants, animals, fungi &
bacteria.
In other words, they are the “everything else” kingdom.
Very diverse group (over 200,000 species)
All are eukaryotes (have a nucleus).
Most unicellular, but some multicellular
Believed to be the first eukaryotic organisms on Earth.
“Protista” is Greek for “the very first”
Biologists don‟t all agree on how to classify protists.
Usually based on how they obtain nutrition – this is the system
you will learn.
66. Commonly called protozoans
All are heterotrophic
Grouped into four major phyla
Distinguished by their method of movement
All are unicellular
67. Phylum: Zoomastigina
Characteristics:
Swim using 1, 2, or many flagella
Absorb food through cell membrane
Live in lakes, streams, and inside larger organisms
Reproduction: usually asexual, but sometimes
sexual
Example:
Trichomonas vaginalis – species that causes Trichomonias, an
STD affecting ~180 million people worldwide each year.
Trypanosoma – causes African sleeping sickness
Giardia – one more reason you don‟t drink stream water
w/out boil
68. Phylum: Sarcodina
Characteristics:
Move and feed with pseudopods (“false feet”)
The cytoplasm of the cell streams into the pseudopod, and
the rest of the cell follows. This is called amoeboid
movement.
Food is surrounded by a pseudopod and taken into the
cell.
Some form tough outer shells and extend their
pseudopods through openings in the shell.
Reproduction: asexual
Example:
Amoebas
Entamoeba causes amebic dysentery.
Pseudopods
69. Phylum: Ciliophora
Characteristics:
Use cilia for feeding and movement
Found in fresh & salt water
Complex internal structure
Important feature: Contractile vacuole
Specialized to collect excess water and pump it out –
maintains stable internal environment (homeostasis)
Reproduction: usually asexual
Example:
Parameciumb
70. Phylum: Sporozoa
Characteristics:
Do not move on their own
Parasitic – affect worms, fish, birds & humans
Reproduction: sexual and asexual
Example:
Plasmodium causes malaria. Plasmodium reproduces
sexually inside the female Anopheles mosquito without
harming the mosquito. Mosquito bites transfer
sporozoites into human blood – sporozoites reproduce
asexually inside humans and destroy liver and blood
cells.
71. Play essential roles in the living world
Recycle nutrients
Many organisms depend on them for food
Cause enormous amounts of disease
Fun example: Termites
Termites eat wood, but do not have the necessary
enzymes to break down the cellulose in wood. The
zooflagellate Trichonympha lives inside the termites
gut and produces cellulase, an enzyme that breaks
down the cellulose so termites can absorb the
nutrients.
72. Commonly called Algae
Grouped into four major phyla
All unicellular
Autotrophic
Absorb light with pigments (chlorophyll mainly)
Some have accessory pigments, which absorb
wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot – increases
efficiency.
73. Phlyum: Euglenophyta
Characteristics:
Two flagella, no cell wall, chloroplasts
In low light, can become heterotrophic
Very similar to zooflagellates
Reproduction: asexual – binary fission
Example:
Euglena
74. Phylum: Chrysophyta
Characteristics:
Chloroplasts contain bright yellow pigments,
making chloroplast appear golden.
Store food as oil instead of starch
Reproduction: asexual and sexual
Examples:
Yellow-green algae
Golden-brown algae
75. Phylum: Bacillariophyta
Characteristics:
Produce thin, delicate cell walls rich in silicon – the
main component of glass.
Amazing array of shapes
76. Phlyum: Pyrrophyta
Characteristics:
Half are photosynthetic, half are heterotrophic
Two flagella
Thick, external plates made of cellulose for
protection
Many are luminescent (give off light) when agitated
Pyrrophyta means “fire plants”
Reproduction: asexual – binary fission
Example:
Gonyaulax – causes “red tides”
(read on for more info)
77. Common in fresh & salt water
Important part of aquatic ecosystems
Produce about half of the oxygen in the atmosphere
Can cause serious problems
Algal “blooms”
Rapid population growth caused by increase in available
nutrients (sewage, fertilizer runoff from fields)
Can have drastic effects on the fish and insects nearby
Example – Dinoflagellates Gonyaulax and Karenia
Blooms of these produce the “red tide” because they are red
in color
Also produce a potentially dangerous toxin – filter-feeding clams
eat the dinoflagellates, and the toxins accumulate in the clam.
Eating clams and other shellfish with these toxins can cause
serious illness, paralysis, and even death in humans and fish.
80. Multicellular
Very similar to plants
Live in water
Grouped into three major phyla
Sorted by their photosynthetic pigments
81. Phylum: Rhodophyta
Characteristics:
Live almost entirely in salt-water
Contain chlorophyll a and phycobilin (a red
pigment)
Can live at great depths
Play role in formation of coral reefs
82. Phlyum: Phaeophyta
Characteristics:
Live almost entirely in salt water
Contain chlorophyll a and c as well as fucoxanthin (a
brown pigment)
Examples:
Giant Kelp
Rockweed (Fucus) – found on rocky coast of eastern
US
84. Phlyum: Chlorophyta
Characteristics:
Live in fresh water and salt water
Unicellular or multicellular
Food stored as starch
Chlorophylls and accessory pigments similar to land plants
Reproduction:
Some sexual, some asexual
Some have a diploid and haploid stage – called alternation of
generations
Examples:
Ulva (sea lettuce)
Volvox
85. Major food source for life in the oceans
Major source of oxygen on Earth
Algae offers many valuable chemicals
Treat stomach ulcers, high blood pressure, arthritis;
make plastics, waxes, transistors, deodorants,
toothpaste, paint, lubricants, artificial wood
Often eaten!
Used in sushi, ice cream, salad dressing, pudding &
candy bars
Can cause economic & health problems
Toxins produced by “Red Tide” dinoflagellates
86. Heterotrophic – absorb nutrients from dead or
decaying organic matter
Lack chitin in their cell walls (fungi has chitin)
Live on land and water
Complex life cycles
87. Phylum: Acrasiomycota & Myxomycota
Characteristics:
Spend most life as free-living cells similar to amoebas
When food supply is limited, go through a complex
reproduction process:
1) individuals send chemical signals that attract other cells of
same species
2) Thousands of cells aggregate into a large slug-like colony
that begins to function as a single organism
3) The colony migrates for several centimeters then stops to
produce a fruiting body which produces spores
4) Spores are scattered and develop into the single amoeba-
like cells we started with.
5) The cycle continues
88.
89. Phylum: Oomycota
Characteristics:
Thrive on dead or decaying organic matter in water
(and sometimes land)
Not true fungi
Often grows in a manner similar to fungus
Reproduction:
Complex lifecycle involving sexual and asexual
reproduction
90. Important as recyclers of organic material
Produce rich topsoil
Cause plant diseases
Mildew, blights of grapes and tomatoes
Responsible for potato famine of 1846 in Ireland
Destroyed potato crop – 1 million people died of
starvation, and another 1 million or so emigrated to the
US and other countries.
91.
92. All plants share the common ancestor of green
algae
Plants have adapted to live on land
Characteristics:
The same photosynthetic pigments in similar
chloroplasts
Cell walls with cellulose
Food stored as starch
Multicellular eukaryotes
93. Four major groups based on differences in:
Water-conducting tissues
Seeds
Flowers
94. Cladogram of the major plant types
Flowering
plants
Cone-bearing
plants
Ferns and
their relatives Flowers; Seeds
Mosses and Enclosed in Fruit
their relatives
Seeds
Water-Conducting
(Vascular) Tissue
Green algae
ancestor
(a protist)
95. Non-Vascular
lack vascular tissue for long-distance
transportation of water and solutes; lack true
roots, leaves or stems
Vascular
Have tissue specialized for the long-distance
transport of water and solutes through a plant;
have true roots, leaves and stems
Much like a circulatory system
96. Called Bryophytes
Includes: Mosses & Liverworts
Cannot retain water or deliver it to other parts of
the plant body
Water must be absorbed directly from the
surrounding air or another nearby source
Small, short, require water for sperm/egg union
99. 90% of all modern plants have vascular tissue &
have true roots, leaves, & stems
Characterized by the presence of a vascular system
composed of two types of specialized tissue
Xylem – tissue that carries the water and dissolved
minerals upward in a plant
made of dead cells
Phloem – tissue conducts sugars and some water upward
and downward in a plant (sap)
made of living cells
Both xylem & phloem are distributed throughout
the roots, leaves & stem
100.
101. Roots
Underground organs that absorb water and
minerals; anchor plant
Leaves
Photosynthetic organs that contain one or more
bundles of vascular tissue gathered into veins
made of xylem and phloem; contain pores
(stomata) for exchange of CO2 and O2
Stems
Supporting structures that connect roots and
leaves, carrying water and nutrients between
them.
102. Seedless Seeded
Ferns produce spores Plants produce male
(not seeds) by meiosis and female gametes
and store them in cases (pollen/egg) which join
on the underside of the to form an embryo. A
leaf (frond) protective seed coat
surrounds the embryo
Once spores are
and provides
released, they
nourishment during
germinate into small
early stages of
plants if they reach
development.
moist ground
Other examples
Club mosses & horsetails
103. Undersides of fern fronds, showing
the bundles (sori) that contain spores.
Ferns do not produce flowers or seeds!
104. Life cycle of a fern
MEIOSIS
Sporangium
(2N) Haploid gametophyte (N)
Diploid sporophyte (2N)
Frond
Young
gametophyte
Spores (N)
Mature (N)
sporophyte
(2N)
Developing
sporophyte Mature
(2N) Antheridium gametophyte
(N)
Sperm
Gametophyte
(N) Egg
Sporophyte
embryo
(2N) Archegonium
FERTILIZATION
105.
106. Gymnosperms
vascular plants that Angiosperms
produce seeds vascular plants that
lacking a protective produce seeds
fruit enclosed and
gymnosperm means protected by a fruit
“naked seed”
Are flowering plants
Eg) conifers – firs,
Oak, tulip,
spruce, pines, cedar
grass, corn, tomatoes
110. Flowers– used in sexual reproduction of
angiosperms Stamen
Pistil
Pistil (female part) Anther
Stigma
Style
Ovary (produce eggs) Filament
Ovary
Style (stalk that holds stigma)
Stigma (sticky pollen collector)
Stamen (male part)
Anther (produce pollen)
Filament (stalk that holds anther)
Petals – attract pollinators
Sepals – protect young flower
as it develops
Petal
Sepal
111. Cuticle – layer of waxes on outer surface
that helps prevent loss of water
Epidermis – one cell thick layer that secretes
the cuticle
Stomata – openings for diffusion
Guard cells – two cells on either side of
stomata that allow diffusion of CO2, oxygen
and water vapor into and out of plant for
photosynthesis
114. Relative numbers of plant species
Cone-bearing plants
760 species
(gymnosperms)
Ferns and Flowering
their relatives plants
11,000 species 235,000 species
(seedless (angiosperms)
vascular)
Mosses and
their relatives
15,600 species (nonvascular)
115.
116. Multicellular (more than 1 cell)
Eukaryotic (cells have nucleus)
Heterotrophic (can‟t make own food)
No cell walls (only a membrane)
117. Most animals have tissues
Tissue - Group of cells that perform a similar
function
Eg. muscular, connective, nervous
All tissues arise from 3 embryonic
(“primitive”) layers
Ectoderm (outer layer)
Mesoderm (middle layer)
Endoderm (inner layer)
More primitive layers = more specialization
can occur during development
118. With the exception of sponges, every animal is
symmetrical
Two types of symmetry:
Radial – any number of imaginary planes can be
drawn through the center, each dividing the body
into equal halves
Eg) bike tire, cantaloupe, beach ball
Bilateral – only a single imaginary plane can divide
the body into two equal halves
Have a left/right, usually have front/back and
upper/lower
120. Animals with bilateral symmetry usually show
cephalization.
Cephalization – the concentration of sense
organs and nerve cells at the front end of the
body
Cephal- Latin for “head”
Cephalization allows animals to respond to the
environment more quickly and in more
complex ways than simpler creatures
121. Invertebrates (95% of animal species)
No backbone
insects, sea stars, jellyfish, sponges, worms
Vertebrates (5% of animal species)
Have a backbone
Fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals
123. Kingdom
Phlyum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
In order of simple complex
124. The most simple animals
These are the sponges
No tissues, organs, mouth or gut
Have a few specialized cells
Have thousands of pores all over body
125. Water flow
Central cavity Choanocyte
Pores Spicule
Pore cell
Pore
Epidermal cell
Archaeocyte
The movement of water through the sponge
provides a simple mechanism for feeding,
respiration, circulation, and excretion.
126. Radial symmetry
Have stinging tentacles arranged in circles
around mouth
Specialized cells with barbs & poison
Simplest animals with symmetry & specialized
tissues
Hydras, jellyfishes, sea anemones & corals
127. Epidermis
Mesoglea
Gastroderm
Tentacles Mesoglea
Gastrovascular cavity
Mouth/anus
Mouth/anus
Gastrovascular Tentacles
cavity
Medusa
Polyp
Life cycle of cnidarians includes the polyp and
medusa form
Polyp – mouth points upward, usually sessile (attached
to bottom)
Medusa – mobile, bell-shaped body with the mouth on
bottom
129. Simple worms
Includes: tapeworms and flukes
Soft, worms with simple tissues and organ
systems
Cephalization & bilateral symmetry
Some are free-living, some are parasites
130. Eyespot Ganglia Freshwater flatworms have
simple ganglia and nerve cords
Head
Nerve that run the length of the body.
Gastrovascular cords The excretory system consists
cavity of a network of tubules
connected to flame cells that
Flatworms use a pharynx to suck remove excess water and cell
food into the gastrovascular cavity. Excretory wastes.
Digested food diffuses from the system
cavity into other cells of the body.
Eyespots in some Ovary
species detect light.
Testes
Mouth Pharynx
Most flatworms are
hermaphrodites, having male
reproductive organs (testes)
and female reproductive organs
(ovaries) in the same organism.
Flame cell
Excretory
tubule
131.
132. Earthworms, leeches & more
Have segmented bodies
Complex organ systems
133. Anus
Setae
Body segments
Gizzard Crop Dorsal
blood vessel
Clitellum
Mouth
Brain
Ganglion
Circular muscle
Ventral
blood vessel
Longitudinal Nephridia Ganglia Ring Reproductive
muscle vessels organs
136. Mollusks – snails, slugs, clams, squid, octopi
Soft-bodied animals
Usually have internal or external shell
All have a body plan with 4 major parts:
Foot, mantle, shell, internal organs
146. Vertebrates (backbone)
(exception: tunicates and lancelets)
Backbone consisting of individual segments
called vertebrae
We will look at the major classes
147. Sharks, rays, skates
Skeletons made of cartilage, not bone
Teeth are made of bone!
150. Amphibians! (salamanders, frogs, toads)
Water & Land life stages
Breathes with lungs as adult
A lungless frog has been found (April „08)
Moist skin with mucous glands
Lacks scales & claws