4. Biodiversity
Biodiversity, or biological diversity = the sum of an
area’s organisms, considering the diversity of
species, their genes, their populations, and their
communities
There is no one exact definition of biodiversity;
people have conceived of it in many ways.
6. Components of biodiversity:
Genetic diversity – genetic variation within
populations or species.
Species diversity – numbers of species within an
area
Ecosystem diversity – variation among ecosystems,
communities, landscapes
7. GENETIC DIVERSITY
Genetic diversity can refer to the sum total of
all different forms of genetic information
carried by a particular species, or by all
organisms on Earth.
Within each species, genetic diversity refers
to the total of all different forms of genes
present in that species.
8. Genetic diversity - genetic variability or diversity
within a species, i.e. between the individuals of a
species
Example ; 5,000 recorded varieties of mango
88,000 recorded varieties of Oryza sativa
9. Genetic diversity
• Includes the differences
in DNA composition
among individuals within a given species
Adaptation to particular environmental conditions may
weed out genetic variants that are not successful.
But populations benefit from some genetic diversity, so as
to avoid inbreeding or disease epidemics.
10. Species diversity
• The number or variety of
species in a particular region
Species richness = number of species
Species = a particular type of organism; a population
or group of populations whose members share certain
characteristics and can freely breed with one another
and produce fertile offspring
11. To date, biologists have identified and named
more than 1.8 million species, and they estimate
that at least 30 million more are yet be
discovered.
12. Species diversity - diversity between different
species
Example ; Felis tigris
Felis domestica
15. The Value of Biodiversity
Why is biodiversity important?
Biodiversity’s benefits to society include
contributions to medicine and agriculture,
and the provision of ecosystem goods and
services.
16. Biodiversity is a natural asset that
provides goods and services
Food Recreation
Medicine Inspiration
Materials Spiritual stimulation
Chemical products Contemplation
Water & soil supply Peace of mind
Climate regulation Religious experiences
Science & technology
It contributes to the
It contributes to the
Sewage & garbage treatment social, economic,
social, economic,
Biological control intellectual and
intellectual and
Pollination spiritual development
spiritual development
of society.
of society.
19. Extrinsic Value
Extrinsic value is a broad category
encompassing many types of biodiversity
values.
Extrinsic values – also referred to as utilitarian
or use values
19
20. Extrinsic values – utilitarian or use values–
include biodiversity’s direct or indirect use to
other living things
20
21. Categorizing Values
Direct Use Value(Goods) Indirect Use Value Non-Use Values
(Services)
Food, medicine, building Atmospheric and climate Potential (or Option) Future value either as a
material, fiber, fuel regulation, pollination, Value good or service
nutrient recycling
Cultural, Spiritual and Existence Value Value of knowing
Aesthetic something exists
Bequest Value Value of knowing that
something will be there
for future generations
33. Besides regulating the atmosphere’s composition, the
extent and distribution of different types of vegetation
over the globe modifies climate in three main ways:
i) affecting the reflectance of sunlight (radiation
balance)
ii) regulating the release of water vapor
(evapotranspiration)
iii) changing wind patterns and moisture loss (surface
roughness).
33
34. Vegetation absorbs water from the soil and releases it
back into the atmosphere through evapotranspiration,
which is the major pathway for water to move from the
soil to the atmosphere. This release of water from
vegetation cools the air temperature.
34
35. In the Amazon region, vegetation and climate is
tightly coupled; evapotranspiration of plants is
believed to contribute fifty percent of the annual
rainfall.
Deforestation in this region leads to a complex
feedback mechanism: as forest cover decreases,
evapotranspiration rates decline, which in turn
decreases rainfall and increases the area’s
vulnerability to fire.
35
37. Biodiversity is also important for global soil
and water protection.
Terrestrial vegetation in forests and other
upland habitats maintain water quality and
quantity, and control soil erosion.
37
38. In watersheds where vegetation has been removed,
flooding prevails in the wet season and drought in
the dry season.
Soil erosion is also more intense and rapid, causing
a double effect: removing nutrient-rich topsoil and
leading to siltation in downstream riverine and
ultimately oceanic environments.
38
39. This example focuses on services provided by
coastal wetlands and mangroves.
Wetlands are ecosystems where water is present
at or near the soil surface or root zone for part or
all of the year; the vegetation found in these
regions is adapted for these conditions.
39
40. Wetlands are among the world's most
productive ecosystems and provide a range of
ecological services, including
- filtering excess nutrients
- trapping sediments
- minimizing damage to coastal areas from floods
and waves
- providing critical habitat for many birds, fish, and
shellfish – in particular the juvenile stage of several
commercial fish.
40
41. The services of a wetland are not easy to replace if they
are removed.
Dams and water treatment facilities are the engineering
equivalent of a wetland, but are often very expensive to
build and maintain.
According to the US Army Corps of Engineers, without
the 3,800 hectares of wetlands that exist along the
Charles River in Boston, Massachusetts, flood damage
would cost $17 million per year. This is one method to
establish a value for biodiversity – by its “replacement
value
41
43. The flow of nutrients through an ecosystem is
critical to its health.
Biodiversity (including algae, fungi, bacteria, and
insects) decompose organic matter, recycling
and returning nutrients to soils. [The image is of
a decomposing deer.]
43
46. Medical Models
Hibernating bears may
improve the treatment of:
trauma patients
kidney disease
osteoporosis
Source: New Jersey Fish and Wildlife
47. Biodiversity also provides a source of medical
models to better understand diseases.
Understanding how bears are able to hibernate
may uncover new ways to assist trauma patients
and treat kidney disease and osteoporosis.
47
48. Bears hibernate for 150 days, stopping all
normal functions (such as eating, drinking,
urinating, and defecating).
Bears are able to accomplish this arrest of
bodily functions by lowering their body
temperature only slightly – by 5 degrees Celsius.
Scientists have discovered a protein that
induces hibernation, slowing organ metabolism
and blood coagulation.
48
49. One application of this discovery could be to
slow bleeding in trauma patients while in transit
to the emergency room.
During hibernation, bears are also able to
recycle their urine and use it to rebuild tissue.
This ability may be useful for treating kidney
illnesses.
Finally, bears also manage to survive
hibernation with minimal bone loss, which may
provide solutions for people suffering from
osteoporosis
49
51. Another example of cultural values is the
aesthetic value that different cultures find in
biodiversity.
In fact many of the first national parks and
protected areas were created to protect beautiful
and awe-inspiring landscapes.
51
52. Ecological Value: Does Diversity Make
Communities More Resilient?
Resilient ecosystems are characterized by:
Constancy (Lack of fluctuation)
Inertia (Resistance to perturbation)
Renewal (Ability to repair damage)
Not all species are critical to an ecosystems function; many
fill redundant roles; basis for community resilience and
integrity
If too many species or keystone species are lost, eventually
it leads to the failure of ecosystem function
53. Natural communities are finely tuned systems, where
each species has an ecological value to the other species
that are part of that ecosystem.
Species diversity increases an ecosystem’s stability and
resilience, in particular its ability to adapt and respond to
changing environmental conditions.
If a certain amount, or type (such as a keystone species)
of species are lost, eventually it leads to the loss of
ecosystem function.
Many ecosystems though have built-in redundancies so
that two or more species’ functions may overlap.
53
54. Because of these redundancies, several changes in the
number or type of species may not impact an ecosystem.
However, not all species within an ecosystem are of the
same importance.
Species that are important due to their sheer numbers
are often called dominant species.
These species make up the most biomass of an
ecosystem.
Species that have important ecological roles that are
greater than one would expect based on their abundance
are called keystone species.
54
55. These species are often central to the structure of an
ecosystem;
removal of one or several keystone species may have
consequences immediately, or decades or centuries later
(Jackson et al. 2001).
Ecosystems are complex and difficult to study, thus it is
often difficult to identify keystone species.
In the following example, the impact of removing an
individual or several keystone species from kelp forest
ecosystems in the Pacific is examined.
55
57. Kelp forests, as their name suggests, are dominated by
kelp, a brown seaweed of the family Laminariales.
They are found in shallow, rocky habitats from
temperate to subarctic regions, and are important
ecosystems for many commercially valuable fish and
invertebrates.
Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) are considered a keystone
species, as a result of their role in structuring the kelp
forest habitats found off the coast of western North
America.
57
58. The illustrations show kelp forest food webs in the
presence and absence of sea otters, and demonstrate
how the loss of this keystone species can drastically alter
and reduce ecosystem function and complexity.
58
59. Non-Use or Passive Values
Existence value
Bequest value
Potential or Option value
60. Valuing Biodiversity
Biodiversity is one of Earth’s greatest natural
resources. When biodiversity is lost, significant value
to the biosphere and to humanity may be lost along
with it.
Biodiversity’s benefits to society include
contributions to medicine and agriculture, and the
provision of ecosystem goods and services.
61. Biodiversity and Medicine
Wild species are the original source of many
medicines. For example, a foxglove plant contains
compounds called digitalins that are used to
treat heart disease.
These plant compounds are assembled
according to instructions coded in genes.
The genetic information carried by diverse species
is like a “natural library” from which we have a
great deal to learn.
62. Biodiversity and Agriculture
Most crop plants have wild relatives. For
example, wild potatoes in South America come in
many colorful varieties.
These wild plants may carry genes we can use
—through plant breeding or genetic
engineering—to transfer disease or pest resistance,
or other useful traits, to crop plants.
63. Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services
The number and variety of species
in an ecosystem can influence that
ecosystem’s stability, productivity,
and value to humans.
64. Sometimes the presence or absence of a single
keystone species, like the sea otter, can completely
change the nature of life in an ecosystem. When the
otter population falls, the population of its favorite
prey, sea urchins, goes up. Population increases in sea
urchins cause a dramatic decrease in the population of
sea kelp, the sea urchin’s favorite food.
Also, healthy and diverse ecosystems play a vital
role in maintaining soil, water, and air quality
65. Benefits of biodiversity
Preserving biodiversity preserves ecosystem
services, and directly provides things of pragmatic
value to us.
• Food, fuel, and fiber
• Shelter and building materials
• Air and water purification
• Waste decomposition
• Climate stabilization and moderation
• Nutrient cycling
• Soil fertility
• Pollination
• Pest control
• Genetic resources
66. Benefits of biodiversity: Food security
Many species not now
commonly used for
food could be.
Genetic diversity
within crop species
and their relatives
enhances our
agriculture and
provides insurance
against losses of
prevalent strains of
staple crops.
Figure 15.11
67. Benefits of biodiversity: Medicine
Many species can provide
novel medicines; we don’t
want to drive these extinct
without ever discovering
their uses.
Ten of our top 25 drugs
come directly from wild
plants; the rest we
developed because of
studying the chemistry of
wild species.
68. Benefits of biodiversity:
Economic benefits
For all nations, ecotourism can be a major
contributor to the economy—especially for
developing nations rich in biodiversity.
Affluent tourists pay good money to see wildlife,
novel natural communities, and protected
ecosystems.
69. Benefits of biodiversity: “Biophilia”
Biophilia = human love for and attachment to other living
things;
“the connections that human beings subconsciously seek
out with the rest of life”
e.g., Affinity for parks and wildlife
Keeping of pets
Valuing real estate with landscape views
Interest in escaping cities to go hiking,
birding, fishing, hunting, backpacking…
70. Hot- spots of Biodiversity
A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a
significant reservoir of biodiversity that is threatened
with destruction.
An area is designated as a hot spot when it contains at
least 0.5% of plant species as endemic.
There are 25 such hot spots of biodiversity on a global
level.
71. Criteria for determining hot-spots
No. of Endemic Species i.e. the species
which are found no where else.
Degree of threat, which is measured in
terms of Habitat loss.
74. Biodiversity loss and species
extinction
Extinction = last member of a species dies and the
species vanishes forever from Earth
Extirpation = disappearance of a particular
population, but not the entire species globally
These are natural processes.
On average one species goes extinct naturally
every 500–1,000 years—this is the background rate of
extinction.
99% of all species that ever lived are now extinct.
75. .
Mass extinctions
Earth has experienced five mass extinction events in
which over half its species were wiped out suddenly.
Figure 15.8
76. Today’s mass extinction
Currently Earth is undergoing its sixth mass extinction
—because of us.
Humans have increased the extinction rate by a factor
of 1,000.
1,100 species are known to have gone extinct in the
past 400 years.
The Red List, from the IUCN, lists species that today
are facing high risks of extinction.
77. Today’s mass extinction
Species of large
mammals and birds
plummeted with the
arrival of humans,
independently, on
each of three
continents—
suggesting that
human hunting was
the cause.
Figure 15.9
78. Causes of species extinction
Primary causes spell “HIPPO”:
• Habitat alteration
• Invasive species
• Pollution
• Population growth
• Overexploitation
79. “HIPPO”: Habitat alteration
The greatest cause of extinction today
Accounts for 85% of population declines of birds and
mammals
Habitat change hurts most organisms because they
are adapted to an existing habitat.
Alteration due to:
Forest clearing Urban development
Agriculture Global climate change
80. “HIPPO”: Invasive species
Accidental or intentional introduction of exotic
species to new areas
Most do not establish or expand, but some do—likely
because they are “released” from limitations imposed
by their native predators, parasites, and competitors.
In today’s globalizing world,
invasive species have become perhaps the second- worst
threat to native biota.
81. “HIPPO”: Invasive species
Examples: • Gypsy moth
• Mosquito fish • European
starling
• Zebra mussel
• Indian
• Kudzu mongoose
• Asian long- Caulerpa
horned beetle algae
• Rosy wolfsnail Cheatgrass
• Cane toad Brown tree
snake
• Bullfrog
Figure 15.10
82. “HIPPO”: Pollution
Air and water pollution; agricultural runoff, industrial
chemicals, etc.
Pollution does serious and widespread harm, but is not
as threatening as the other elements of HIPPO.
83. “HIPPO”: Population growth
Human population growth exacerbates every other
environmental problem.
Magnifies effects of the other elements of HIPPO:
More people means more habitat change, more invasive
species, more pollution, more overexploitation.
Along with increased resource consumption, it is the
ultimate reason behind proximate threats to
biodiversity.
84. “HIPPO”: Overexploitation
Two meanings:
Overharvesting of species from the wild
(too much hunting, fishing…)
Overconsumption of resources
(too much timber cutting, fossil fuel use…)
Usually overexploitation is not the sole cause extinction, but
it often contributes in tandem with other causes.
85. Causes of species extinction
In most cases, extinctions occur because of a combination
of factors.
e.g., current global amphibian declines are thought
due to a complex combination of:
• Chemical contamination
• Disease transmission
• Habitat loss
• Ozone depletion and UV penetrance
• Climate change
• Synergistic interaction of these factors
86. Benefits of biodiversity
Preserving biodiversity preserves ecosystem
services, and directly provides things of pragmatic
value to us.
• Food, fuel, and fiber
• Shelter and building materials
• Air and water purification
• Waste decomposition
• Climate stabilization and moderation
• Nutrient cycling
• Soil fertility
• Pollination
• Pest control
• Genetic resources
87. Conservation biology
Scientific discipline devoted to understanding the factors, forces, and
processes that influence the loss, protection, and restoration of biological
diversity within and among ecosystems.
Applied and goal-oriented: Conservation biologists intend to prevent
extinction.
This discipline arose in recent decades as biologists grew alarmed at the
degradation of natural systems they had spent their lives studying.
Figure 15.13
88. Conservation approaches:
Umbrella species
When habitat is preserved to meet the needs of an
“umbrella species,” it helps preserve habitat for many
other species. (Thus, primary species serve as an
“umbrella” for others.)
Large species with large home ranges (like tigers and
other top predators) are good umbrella species.
So are charismatic ones that win public affection, like the
panda.
89. Conservation approaches:
Endangered species
Trying to preserve single species threatened with
extinction is the goal of endangered species laws,
although they often also achieve umbrella
conservation.
U.S. Endangered Species Act, 1973:
• Restricts actions that would destroy endangered
species or their habitats
• Forbids trade in products from species
• Prevents extinction, stabilizes and recovers
populations
90. Conservation approaches:
Endangered species
The ESA has had notable successes:
Bald eagle
Peregrine falcon
40% of all declining populations held stable
However, there is much popular resentment
against the ESA:
Many citizens believe it will restrict their freedom if
endangered species are found on their land.
91. Conservation approaches: Captive
breeding
Many endangered species are being bred in zoos,
to boost populations and reintroduce them into the wild.
This has worked so far for the
California condor
(in photo, condor hand
puppet feeds chick so it
imprints on birds, not
humans).
But this is worthless if there
is not adequate habitat left
in the wild.
Figure 15.17
92. Conservation approaches:
Cloning
A newly suggested approach is to use molecular
techniques to clone endangered or even extinct
species, raise them in zoos, and reintroduce them to
the wild.
Even if this succeeds technically, though, it will be
worthless if there is not adequate habitat and
protection left for them in the wild.
93. Conservation approaches:
International treaties
Various treaties have helped conserve biota.
A major one is CITES, the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora,
prepared in 1973.
It bans international trade and transport of body parts
of endangered organisms.
94. Conservation approaches:
International treaties
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), from the
Rio Conference in 1992, aims to:
• Conserve biodiversity
• Use it sustainably
• Ensure fair distribution of its benefits
The CBD has been signed by 188 nations, but not by the
United States.
95. Conservation approaches:
Biodiversity hotspots
Biodiversity hotspot = an area that supports an
especially high number of species endemic to the
area, found nowhere else in the world
Endangered golden lion
tamarin, endemic to
Brazil’s Atlantic
rainforest, which has
been almost totally
destroyed
Figure 15.18
96. Conservation approaches:
Biodiversity hotspots
Global map of biodiversity hotspots, as determined
by Conservation International
Figure 15.19
97. Conclusions: Challenges
We still have little idea of how many species inhabit
our planet.
We have set the sixth mass extinction in motion.
Population declines, extirpations, and extinctions
result from habitat alteration, invasive species,
pollution, population growth, and overexploitation.
Fragmentation of habitats causes loss of species from
habitat islands.
Conservation biology is fighting an uphill battle to
save species, habitats, and ecosystems.
98. Conclusions: Solutions
Biologists are making strides in determining how many
species inhabit our planet.
There is still time to halt the sixth mass extinction.
We have ways to minimize habitat alteration, invasive
species, pollution, and overexploitation, but success will
ultimately depend on halting human population growth.
Fragmented habitats can be restored, but preserving areas
before they are fragmented is best to avoid species loss.
Conservation biology has developed numerous and varied
ways to save species, habitats, and ecosystems.
99. QUESTION: Review
Which of these pairs of terms is included in the acronym
“HIPPO” that describes causes of biodiversity loss?
a. Pollution and Indicator species
b. Harvesting and Population decline
c. Habitat alteration and Invasive species
d. Overexploitation and Pollination
e. Indicator species and Population growth
100. QUESTION: Review
Which is NOT a benefit of biodiversity to humans?
a. Economic benefits through ecotourism
b. New potential sources of food
c. New potential sources of drugs
d. Ecosystem services
e. All of the above are benefits of biodiversity.
101. QUESTION: Review
Which has NOT been an approach of conservation
biologists?
a. Identifying and mapping areas with large
numbers of endemic species.
b. Applying island biogeography theory to habitat
fragments.
c. Breeding animals in captivity.
d. Requiring landowners to give up their land.
e. Working with local communities to get them
invested in conservation.
102. QUESTION: Weighing the Issues
When North American pharmaceutical companies go
“bioprospecting” in developing countries for compounds for new
drugs and medicines, should they be required to pay the host
country for its biodiversity?
a. Yes; the biodiversity is a natural resource of the host
country, and it should be paid a fee up front.
b. Yes; the biodiversity is a natural resource of the host
country, and it should share in any eventual profits
from any medicines developed.
c. No; the company is the one doing all the work, so all
profits should go to the company.
103. QUESTION: Viewpoints
Are parks and protected areas the best strategy for
protecting biodiversity?
a. Yes; it is absolutely necessary to preserve
untrammeled habitat for species to persist.
b. No; parks won’t matter because climate change
will force the biota out of them.
c. No; it is more effective to work with local people
and give them economic incentives to conserve
nature
d. Both parks and other strategies are necessary.
Hinweis der Redaktion
The Value of Biodiversity The values people assign to biodiversity can be placed into two main categories: those that are intrinsic or inherent to the organism or ecosystem, and those which grow out of utilitarian, instrumental, or extrinsic uses or applications of biodiversity.
Intrinsic/Inherent Value Define intrinsic or inherent value. The intrinsic or inherent value of biodiversity refers to its right to exist, completely independent of any extrinsic or utilitarian values it might have to humans and to other biodiversity. Some of the more abstract extrinsic values are frequently misidentified as intrinsic values; for example, aesthetic value or the value of biodiversity to an ecosystem rather than to humans. This slide can serve as a starting point for discussion, depending on class time, size and level, any one of these topics could take 30-45 minutes to discuss. What role does intrinsic value play in existing conservation policy and laws? How do intrinsic values of biodiversity impact conservation decisions? Useful articles for this discussion include Lawton 1991, Callicott 1997, the Endangered Species Act, and the United Nations Charter on Nature 1982. Some teachers may prefer to present this slide, after the slides on extrinsic values, which are more concrete.
Prior to showing the next this slide and the following slide, ask the students to list some of the extrinsic or utilitarian values of biodiversity. This can be done as a group using brainstorming techniques, or in pairs or small groups initially and then as a class compiling the list. Using the list developed by the class examine the different categories of extrinsic values. Divide the list to show things that are “direct use” values or goods and those that are “indirect use” values or services . Then separate out those which are “non-use” values (i.e., bequest, existence, and potential values). Introduce the fact that there are several ways to categorize extrinsic values, and that many authors use slightly different methods, for example, some choose to place spiritual and cultural values as distinct from services such as pollination or nutrient cycling which are crucial to survival. Further, potential value is often included as a use value since potential value is based on the future use that biodiversity might have; others include this as a non-use value since it is, by nature, an abstract concept and the potential use that something might have is undetermined. Similarly with bequest value, if the idea is passing on something for the next generation to use, bequest value can be considered a kind of use value; but considering bequest value from a more abstract perspective renders bequest value closer to a non-use value, if the value lies simply in knowing that something will be there for the future regardless of whether it will be used. Were some values easier to think of than others? What kinds of values are easy to overlook? Categorizing Values In the conservation biology and ecological economics literature, there are many methods to categorize the value or worth of biodiversity. Often the value of biodiversity is subdivided into categories based on how biodiversity is used. Extrinsic value is a broad category encompassing many types of biodiversity values. Extrinsic values – also referred to as utilitarian or use values– include biodiversity’s direct or indirect use to other living things. This slide lists the major categories of extrinsic values, direct-use values or goods, and indirect-use values or services. It also includes a list of “non-use” values, potential, existence, and bequest values. Some include potential value as part of use value. We will examine each of these values in detail.
Direct Use Value: Goods This slide lists some of the different kinds of goods or products derived from biodiversity including food, building materials, fuel, paper products, fiber for clothing and textiles, industrial products, and medicine. In subsequent slides, several of these goods will be highlighted. [Note: The image depicts a man in Vietnam who is extracting bamboo for use as building material.]
Food Historically, humans have exploited thousands of plant species for food; today, however, most people on Earth depend on three staple crops (rice, wheat, and corn). Despite this dependence on few species, the genetic diversity in wild plants and animals remain important for creating new strains or breeds. Also, there are many species that one day could be a potential food source. Sorghum, emmer, and spelt, once widely grown grains, have been largely replaced by wheat. However, because of their unique environmental adaptations – sorghum, for example, can be grown in drier climates that do not support wheat – these grasses may become more important in the future if climatic conditions change. [Image is of rice paddies in Vietnam.]
Building Materials, Fuel, and Paper Products Trees and several grasses, most notably bamboo and rattan, are basic commodities used worldwide for building materials, paper products, and fuel. The worldwide production of timber and related products – including homes, furniture, mulch, chipboard, paper and packaging – is a multi-billion dollar industry. Outside of large market economies, products from particular species of wild-growing woody plants are key sources of shelter (e.g., termite-resistant support poles), household items (furniture, utensils, baskets, etc.), long-burning fuels, and dyes. One of the most important uses of wood is for fuel. According to the World Resources Institute, 63 percent of all harvested wood is used as fuel – whether burned directly or after being converted to charcoal. Fuelwood, charcoal, and other fuel from wood are the major sources of energy in low-income countries; the major consumers and producers of wood for fuel are Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, and Nigeria. [Image is of children in Vietnam preparing thatch for roofs.] Prior to showing the next slide ask students if they can guess how many of the leading prescription drugs have their origins in biodiversity. Students can also guess how many people in developing countries depend directly on plants for medicine.
Medicine People depend on biodiversity for medicinal purposes in two ways: directly as a primary source of medicine, and indirectly as a source of the chemical structures used in synthesizing drugs or service. [Image depicts medicinal herbs in a market in Bolivia.]
Traditional Medicine: Basis of Many Drugs This table gives some examples of Western drugs whose origins were from plants. Those noted in bold were originally used for tradition medicine. Instructor may choose to tell any number of stories of drug discovery based on plants used for traditional medicine, such as the use of foxglove for heart conditions, now the basis for digitoxin.
Indirect Use Values: Services This slide lists some of the different services provided by biodiversity. Ecosystem services encompass a wide variety of different resources, functions, and processes provided to humans and to other biodiversity. Unlike goods, these are often outside traditional economic markets, and thus more difficult to value monetarily. Several of the services of biodiversity will be examined in the following slides. Is it possible to place a value on ecosystem services, like nutrient cycling or watershed protection? Why is it helpful to do this? The article by Costanza and others (1997) can form the basis of a discussion on this subject
Global Processes: Atmospheric Regulation Forests and other vegetation modify climate in a variety of ways; they affect sun reflectance, water vapor release, wind patterns, and moisture loss. Photosynthetic biodiversity also has the potential to moderate the rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels linked to global climate change by fixing carbon in organic matter. The evolution of photosynthesis is responsible for one of the most dramatic changes in the Earth's environment: the increase of atmospheric oxygen. 3.5 billion years ago, cyanobacteria, through the process of photosynthesis, released oxygen and helped to create the atmosphere we know today. The regulation of atmospheric oxygen depends on biodiversity. Carbon cycles between the land, atmosphere, and oceans through a combination of physical, chemical, geological, and biological processes. One key way biodiversity influences the composition of the earth’s atmosphere, and in turn its climate, is through its role in carbon cycling in the oceans
Global Processes: Climate Regulation Besides regulating the atmosphere’s composition, the extent and distribution of different types of vegetation over the globe modifies climate in three main ways: affecting the reflectance of sunlight ( radiation balance ); regulating the release of water vapor ( evapotranspiration ); and changing wind patterns and moisture loss ( surface roughness ). Vegetation absorbs water from the soil and releases it back into the atmosphere through evapotranspiration , which is the major pathway for water to move from the soil to the atmosphere. This release of water from vegetation cools the air temperature. In the Amazon region, vegetation and climate is tightly coupled; evapotranspiration of plants is believed to contribute fifty percent of the annual rainfall. Deforestation in this region leads to a complex feedback mechanism: as forest cover decreases, evapotranspiration rates decline, which in turn decreases rainfall and increases the area ’ s vulnerability to fire.
Soil and water conservation:
Nutrient Cycling
Pollination and Seed Dispersal Approximately 90% of flowering plants depend on pollination by bees, birds, bats and other pollinators for reproduction. The loss of pollinators and the services they provide would drastically reduce the size of food harvests and threaten non-agricultural species with extinction. Besides pollination, biodiversity provides many other services to agriculture not detailed here, such as natural pest control and a genetic library for crop and livestock improvement.
Source of Inspiration or Information Humans have always relied on biodiversity to help understand and solve problems in the world around us. This slide examines some of the ways that biodiversity inspires us, from biomimicry to applied biology and medical models, as well as for scientific research and education. Discoveries made during scientific research have revolutionized many fields. A heat-tolerant enzyme found in bacteria living in the hotsprings of Yellowstone National Park in the United States is the underpinning of much of today’s genetic and biotechnology research. These heat-tolerant enzymes, known as taq enzymes, are used in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to replicate genetic material. From airplanes to velcro, the natural world has provided a source of inspiration to overcome challenges. This phenomenon is sometimes termed “biomimicry” as the technological innovation mimics something from the biological world. For example, Velcro was patterned after cockleburs, a plant that disperses its seeds via its sticky seed pods that attach to people or animals as they walk through a meadow.
Medical Models Biodiversity also provides a source of medical models to better understand diseases. Understanding how bears are able to hibernate may uncover new ways to assist trauma patients and treat kidney disease and osteoporosis. Bears hibernate for 150 days, stopping all normal functions (such as eating, drinking, urinating, and defecating). Bears are able to accomplish this arrest of bodily functions by lowering their body temperature only slightly – by 5 degrees Celsius. Scientists have discovered a protein that induces hibernation, slowing organ metabolism and blood coagulation. One application of this discovery could be to slow bleeding in trauma patients while in transit to the emergency room. During hibernation, bears are also able to recycle their urine and use it to rebuild tissue. This ability may be useful for treating kidney illnesses. Finally, bears also manage to survive hibernation with minimal bone loss, which may provide solutions for people suffering from osteoporosis.
Aesthetic Value How do aesthetic values differ between cultures?
Ecological Value: Does Diversity Make Communities More Resilient
Kelp Forest Food Webs
Non-Use or Passive Values There are several less tangible values that are sometimes called non-use or passive values, for things that we don’t use but would feel a loss if they were to disappear; these typically include existence value , the value of knowing something exists even if you will never use it or see it, and bequest value , the value of knowing something will be there for future generations. Economists sometimes use surveys to estimate these values, asking for example what someone is willing to pay to simply know that tigers exist even if they will never see or use one. Potential or option value refers to the use that something may have in the future; some authors consider this a form of use value, but here it is included within the passive values based on its abstract nature, for example, a plant may have a potential value but until this value is realized, this value is uncertain; once the plant’s value is recognized, it is a use value.