The document discusses theories and styles of leadership across different cultures. It describes Theory X, Y and Z, which are theories about how managers view employee motivation. It also outlines leadership styles like authoritarian, paternalistic and participative leadership. Research shows there are both similarities and differences in leadership approaches between countries like the US, Europe, Japan, China and the Middle East.

1. Leadership Across Cultures

2. 2
Foundation for Leadership
Philosophical Background:
Theories X, Y, and Z
 A manager who believes that
people are basically lazy and that
coercion and threats of punishment
often are necessary to get them to
work.
Theory X ManagerTheory X Manager

3. 3
Foundation for Leadership
Philosophical Background:
Theories X, Y, and Z
 A manager who believes that under
the right conditions people not
only will work hard but will seek
increased responsibility and
challenge.
Theory Y ManagerTheory Y Manager
Theory X ManagerTheory X Manager

4. 4
Foundation for Leadership
Philosophical Background:
Theories X, Y, and Z
 A manager who believes that
workers seek opportunities to
participate in management and are
motivated by teamwork and
responsibility sharing.
Theory Z ManagerTheory Z Manager
Theory Y ManagerTheory Y Manager
Theory X ManagerTheory X Manager

5. 5
Foundation for Leadership
Leadership Behaviors
and Styles
Participative
Leadership
Participative
Leadership
Authoritarian
Leadership
Authoritarian
Leadership
Paternalistic
Leadership
Paternalistic
Leadership
The use of work-centered behavior
designed to ensure task
accomplishment.
The use of work-centered behavior
coupled with a protective employee
centered concern.
The use of both work- or task-centered
and people centered approaches to
leading subordinates.

6. 6
Leader–Subordinate InteractionsLeader–Subordinate Interactions
McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Adapted from Figure 13–1: Leader–Subordinate Interactions
Authoritarian Leader
Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate
One-way downward flow of information
and influence from authoritarian leader
to subordinates.

7. 7
Leader–Subordinate InteractionsLeader–Subordinate Interactions
McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Adapted from Figure 13–1: Leader–Subordinate Interactions
Paternalistic Leader
Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate
Continual interaction and exchange of
information and influence between
leader and subordinates.

8. 8
Leader–Subordinate InteractionsLeader–Subordinate Interactions
McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Adapted from Figure 13–1: Leader–Subordinate Interactions
Participative Leader
Subordinate Subordinate Subordinate
Continual interaction and exchange of
information and influence between
leader and subordinates.

9. 9
123456789
ConcernforPeople/Relationships
High
Low
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Concern for Production/Task HighLow
The Managerial GridThe Managerial Grid
McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Adapted from Figure 13–2: The Managerial Grid
1,1 Management Style
Exertion of minimum effort to get
required work done is
appropriate to sustain
organization membership
9,1 Management Style
Efficiency in operations results from
arranging conditions of work in such
a way that human elements
interface to a minimum degree
5,5 Management Style
Adequate organization performance is
possible through balancing the necessity
to get out work with maintaining morale of
people at a satisfactory level
9,9 Management Style
Work accomplishment is from
committed people; interdependence
through a “common stake” in
organization purpose leads to
relationships of trust and respect
1,9 Management Style
Thoughtful attention to needs of
people for satisfying relationships
leads to a comfortable friendly
organization atmosphere and
work tempo

10. 10
Leadership in the International Context
How do leaders in other countries attempt to direct
or influence their subordinates?
Are their approaches similar to those used in the
United States?
Research shows that there are both similarities and
differences – most international research on leadership
has focused on Europe, East Asia, the Middle East,
and developing countries such as India, Peru, Chile,
and Argentina.

11. 11
Leadership in the International Context
Attitudes of European
Managers Toward
Leadership Practices
Capacity for Leadership
and Initiative
Capacity for Leadership
and Initiative
European managers tend to use a
participative approach. Researchers
investigated four areas relevant to
leadership.
Does the leader believe that employees
prefer to be directed and have little
ambition? (Theory X)
OR
Does the leader believe that characteristics
such as initiative can be acquired by most
people regardless of their inborn traits and
abilities? (Theory Y)

12. 12
Leadership in the International Context
Attitudes of European
Managers Toward
Leadership Practices
Capacity for Leadership
and Initiative
Capacity for Leadership
and Initiative
Sharing Information
and Objectives
Sharing Information
and Objectives
Does the leader believe that detailed,
complete instructions should be given to
subordinates and that subordinates need only
this information to do their jobs?
OR
Does the leader believe that general
directions are sufficient and that
subordinates can use their initiative in
working out the details?
Most evidence indicates European
managers tend to use a participative
approach. Researchers investigated
four areas relevant to leadership.

13. 13
Leadership in the International Context
Attitudes of European
Managers Toward
Leadership Practices
Capacity for Leadership
and Initiative
Capacity for Leadership
and Initiative
Sharing Information
and Objectives
Sharing Information
and Objectives
ParticipationParticipation
Does the leader support participative
leadership practices?
Most evidence indicates European
managers tend to use a participative
approach. Researchers investigated
four areas relevant to leadership.

14. 14
Leadership in the International Context
Attitudes of European
Managers Toward
Leadership Practices
Capacity for Leadership
and Initiative
Capacity for Leadership
and Initiative
Sharing Information
and Objectives
Sharing Information
and Objectives
ParticipationParticipation
Internal ControlInternal Control
Does the leader believe that the most
effective way to control employees is
through rewards and punishment?
OR
Does the leader believe that employees
respond best to internally generated control?
Most evidence indicates European
managers tend to use a participative
approach. Researchers investigated
four areas relevant to leadership.

15. 15
Leadership in the International Context
 Higher-level managers tend to express more democratic values than
lower-level managers in some countries – in other countries, the
opposite was true
 Company size tends to influence the degree of participative-autocratic
attitudes
 Younger managers were more likely to have democratic values when
it came to capacity for leadership and initiative and to sharing
information and objectives
Attitudes of European
Managers Toward
Leadership Practices
The Role of Level, Size, and
Age on European Managers’
Attitudes Toward Leadership

16. 16
Leadership in the International Context
 Japan is well known for its paternalistic approach to leadership
 Japanese culture promotes a high safety or security need, which is
present among home country–based employees as well as MNC
expatriates
 Japanese managers have much greater belief in the capacity of
subordinates for leadership and initiative than do managers in most
other countries – only managers in Anglo-American countries had
stronger feelings in this area
Japanese Leadership
Approaches

17. 17
Leadership in the International Context
 Except for internal control, large U.S. firms tend to be more
democratic than small ones – the profile is quite different in Japan
 Younger U.S. managers appear to express more democratic attitudes
than their older counterparts on all four leadership dimensions
 Japanese and U.S. managers have a basically different philosophy of
managing people – Ouchi’s Theory Z combines Japanese and U.S.
assumptions and approaches providing a comparison of seven key
characteristics
Differences Between
Japanese and U.S.
Leadership Styles

18. 18
Leadership in the International Context
Another difference between Japanese and U.S. leadership styles is how
senior-level managers process information and learn
Differences Between
Japanese and U.S.
Leadership Styles
 Variety Amplification
Japanese executives are taught and tend to use variety amplification – the
creation of uncertainty and the analysis of many alternatives regarding
future action
 Variety Reduction
U.S. executives are taught and tend to use variety reduction – the limiting
of uncertainty and the focusing of action on a limited number of alternatives

19. 19
Leadership in the International Context
 The “New Generation” group scored significantly higher on
individualism than did the current and older generation groups
 They also scored significantly lower than the other two groups on
collectivism and Confucianism
 These values appear to reflect the period of relative openness and
freedom, often called the “Social Reform Era,” in which these new
managers grew up
 They have had greater exposure to Western societal influences may
result in leadership styles similar to those of Western managers
Leadership in China

20. 20
Leadership in the International Context
 There may be much greater similarity between Middle Eastern leadership
styles and those of Western countries
 Western management practices are evident in the Arabian Gulf region due to
close business ties between the West and this oil-rich area as well as the
increasing educational attainment, often in Western universities, of Middle
Eastern managers
 Organizational culture, level of technology, level of education, and
management responsibility were good predictors of decision-making styles in
the United Arab Emirates
 There is a tendency toward participative leadership styles among young Arab
middle managers, as well as among highly educated managers of all ages
Leadership in the
Middle East

21. 21
Differences in Middle Eastern andDifferences in Middle Eastern and
Western ManagementWestern Management
Adapted from Table 13–5: Differences in Middle Eastern and Western Management

22. 22
Differences in Middle Eastern andDifferences in Middle Eastern and
Western ManagementWestern Management
Adapted from Table 13–5: Differences in Middle Eastern and Western Management

23. 23
Leadership in the International Context
 Managerial attitudes in India are similar to Anglo-
Americans toward capacity for leadership and initiative,
participation, and internal control, but different in sharing
information and objectives
 Leadership styles in Peru may be much closer to those in
the United States than previously assumed
 Developing countries may be moving toward a more
participative leadership style
Leadership Approaches
in Developing Countries

24. 24
Types of Leadership
 Transactional Leadership
 Charismatic Leadership
 Transformational Leadership