1) The document discusses the history and society of the Mediterranean region under Roman rule from the 8th century BCE to the 2nd century CE. 2) It describes the founding and expansion of the Roman Republic and Empire, the establishment of Roman rule over the Mediterranean, and the integration of the region's economy and culture. 3) The passage also examines the growth and spread of religions like Christianity and mystery cults throughout the Empire during this period, as Mediterranean societies became increasingly cosmopolitan under the Pax Romana.

1. Chapter 11 Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase

2. From Kingdom to Republic

3. The Etruscans and Rome Legend: City’s existence owed to flight of Aeneas Migrated from Troy The Aeneidby Virgil Indo-Europeans arrive 2000 B.C.E. – blend Bronze arrives c. 1800, Iron c. 900

4. Romulus and Remus Twin descendants of Aeneas Abandoned by evil uncle along Tiber River Nursed by wolf and grow strong 753 B.C.E. – Romulus founds Rome – becomes king

5. The Etruscans from Anatolia Colonized Roman regions Thriving cities, economic alliances (bronze, iron) Society declines late 6thc. BCE Greek maritime attacks Celtic invasions from north (Gaul)

6. The Kingdom of Rome Monarchy through 7th-6thc. BCE Geographic advantage – along Tiber, not on coast Streets, temples, public buildings Major center of trade routes Benefits from decline of Etruscans

7. The Roman Republic and Its Constitution 509 B.C.E. – Romans overthrow last Etruscan king Replaced with Aristocratic republic

8. Establishment of the Republic Roman Forum Republican constitution Executive: 2 consuls with civil and military powers Consuls elected by assembly of aristocrats (hereditary) Senate – advised consuls and ratified decisions

9. Conflicts Between Patricians and Plebeians Patricians (aristocrats) Plebeians (commoners) Plebeians allowed to elect tribunes for representation Rights expanded through 3rdc. BCE 6-month appointments of dictators in emergencies

11. Expansion of the Republic Dominated Etruscans Took over iron industry 5th-4thc. BCE Expansion via military threat and incentives Tax exemptions Trade privileges Citizenship Restricted alliances Required military service

12. Roman Republic 146 B.C.E.

13. Expansion in the Mediterranean Carthage main competitor Antigonids, Ptolemies, Seleucids Hellenistic prosperity supported growing trade network

14. The Punic Wars Conflict with Carthage, 264-164 BCE 3 wars over Sicilian grain supply Rome gains control of Carthaginian lands Rome dominates Mediterranean by middle of 2nd C. BCE

15. From Republic to Empire

16. Imperial Expansion and Domestic Problems Land distribution Perennial problem Development of large latifundia Unfair competition for smaller landholders

17. The Gracchi Brothers Tiberius and Gaius Attempted to limit land holdings of aristocrats Assassinated Development of private armies made up of landless peasants Gaius Marius (with reformers) Lucius Cornelius Sulla (with aristocrats)

18. Civil War 87 BCE Gaius Marius takes Rome Lucius Cornelius Sulla drives Marius out 83 BCE Reign of terror follows – encourages Romans to kill “enemies” of the state Sulla imposed conservative programs – weakened influence of lower classes

19. The Foundation of Empire Rome still plagued with class conflict Poor flooded cities, joined private militaries Julius Caesar become a popular leader in favor of social reform Led the process from republic to imperial rule

20. Julius Caesar Nephew of Marius Escapes Sulla’s terror Relatively young, well-timed trip abroad Attacks Rome 49 BCE Names self Dictator for life in 46 BCE Centralized rule, confiscated land from conservatives Assassinated in 44 B.C.E.

21. Augustus Civil conflict follows death of Caesar Nephew Octavian fights Mark Antony & Cleopatra Takes title Augustus 27 BCE Ruled for 45 years

22. Augustus’s Administration Monarchy disguised as a republic Kept republican form of government Increasing centralization of political, military power Stablilized empire Death in 14 CE

23. Continuing Expansion and Integration of the Empire Roman occupation of increasingly remote areas Gaul, Germany, Britain, Spain Integrate into economy and society Coordination of crop production, transport of natural resources Allied with local rulers Developed infrastructure, cities emerge (Paris, Lyons, London, Cologne, Segovia)

25. Roman Empire - 117 C.E.

26. The PaxRomana Roman Peace 27-250 CE Facilitated trade, communication

27. Roman Roads Roads linked the territories, supported trade and communication Curbs, drainage, milestones Postal service

29. Roman Law Twelve Tables, c. 450 BCE Adapted to diverse populations under Roman Rule Laws integrated larger society Innocent until proven guilty Right to challenge accusers in court

30. Economy and Society in the Roman Mediterranean

31. Trade and Urbanization Focus on Mediterranean Growing economy brings social change State brings more regions into control Agriculture – foundation of economy

32. Commercial Agriculture Latifundia: production for export Regional specialization increases – better use of land Integration of Empire-wide economy Spain- olive oil, wine, horses, metals Palestine and Syria – fruits, nuts, wool Italy – pottery, glassware, bronze Greece – olives, vines Gaul – grain, copper

33. Mediterranean Trade Vigorous trade Sea lanes linked ports from Syria and Palestine to Spain and North Africa Roman navy kept sea free of pirates – cargo safer and larger “mare nostrum” – our sea

35. The City of Rome Cities promoted economic and social change Cash flowed to Rome Taxes, tribute, spoils, commerce Massive construction projects Statuary, monumental architecture, aqueducts Technology: concrete

38. Roman Cities Cities built at strategic points Imported goods, luxury items Underground sewage Circus Maximus 250,000 spectators Colosseum Gladitorial Games

40. Family and Society Roman family consisted of entire household Slaves Free Servants Close relatives

41. The Pater Familias Pater Familias: “father of the family” Right to arrange marriages, sell children into slavery, determine work, punish as see fit Women not allowed to inherit property Rarely enforced Supervised household

42. Wealth and Social Change Newly rich challenge aristocracy Poor class increased in size Often rioted to improve conditions Distraction: “Bread and Circuses”

43. Slavery 2ndc. CE: estimated at 1/3 of Empire population Customary manumission at age 30 Agricultural work, quarries, mines Chain labor Revolt under Spartacus, 73 BCE – 70,000 slaves Educated slaves - Epictetus

44. The Cosmopolitan Mediterranean

45. Greek Philosophy and Religions of Salvation As people moved throughout the Mediterranean world, they carried their religious beliefs Roads and communications spread popular religions

46. Roman Deities Polytheistic Major gods – Jupiter, Mars, Ceres (grain) Tutelary deities Absorption of gods from other cultures

47. Greek Influence Influenced Roman philosophy and use of reasonable thought Stoics – sought universal moral standards

48. Cicero and Stoicism Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-46 BCE) Major orator, writer Influenced by Greek thought Proponent of Stoicism Emphasized duty to live in accordance with nature and reason Pursuit of justice as highest duty

49. Religions of Salvation Masses found comfort in religions of salvation Provided a sense of purpose Spread during Hellenistic times Brought to Rome by migrants Roads served as highways for religions of salvation

50. Mithraism From Zoroastrian myth: god of Sun, light Roman version emphasizes strength, courage, discipline Women not admitted into cult Appealed to military

51. Cult of Isis Open to men and women Most popular religions of salvation before Christianity Used to cope with stresses of cosmopolitan life

52. Judaism and Early Christianity 10th century BCE – Jewish Kingdoms of David and Solomon dissolve Jewish faith maintained by followers under foreign rulers Jews did not want to participate in worshipping of deities

53. The Jews and the Empire Jewish monotheism at odds with most ancient cultures Refusal to recognize state gods Tension grows as Rome expands into Southwest Asia Repeated Jewish rebellions in Palestine Romans finally crush Jewish self-governance in Jewish Wars (66-70 CE)

54. The Essenes Messianic Jewish Cult 1st century BCE Strict moral codes Baptism – ritual look for savior to free from Roman rule Ascetic lifestyle Dead Sea Scrolls

55. Jesus of Nazareth Jewish teacher Born about 4 BCE Moral code, reputation for miracle-working “kingdom of God is at hand” Romans fear instigation of rebellion, crucify Jesus in early 30s CE IesusNazarenus Rex Iudaeorum

56. Jesus’ Early Followers Belief in Jesus’ resurrection, divine nature (later) Title Christ: “Anointed One” Teachings recorded in New Testament Over time, teach he is son of God

57. Paul of Tarsus Jewish followers – some want to gain converts Extends teachings far beyond Jewish circles Jew from Anatolia Intensive travel, missionary activity

58. Early Christian Communities Local leaders: Bishops Regional variation in doctrine and ritual Nature of resurrection Role of women Gradual acceptance of core texts

59. The Growth of Early Christianity

60. Summary Under Romans, Mediterranean peoples become tightly integrated Roman Empire – Administration over vast lands Specialized agriculture and industrial production Spread of popular religions, Philosophy