4. TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
tan A = sin A/ cos A
sec A = 1/ cos A
cosec A = 1/ sin A
cot A = cos A/ sin A = 1/ tan A
sin2 A + cos2 A = 1
sec2 A = 1 + tan2 A
cosec 2 A = 1 + cot2 A
sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B
tan(A ± B) =
sin A sin B
tan A±tan B
1 tan A tan B
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A
= 2 cos2 A − 1
= 1 − 2 sin2 A
tan 2A =
2 tan A
1−tan2 A
sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A
cos 3A = 4 cos3 A − 3 cos A
tan 3A =
3 tan A−tan3 A
1−3 tan2 A
sin A + sin B = 2 sin A+B cos A−B
2
2
5. sin A − sin B = 2 cos A+B sin A−B
2
2
cos A + cos B = 2 cos A+B cos A−B
2
2
cos A − cos B = −2 sin A+B sin A−B
2
2
2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)
2 cos A sin B = sin(A + B) − sin(A − B)
2 cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)
−2 sin A sin B = cos(A + B) − cos(A − B)
a sin x + b cos x = R sin(x + φ), where R =
If t = tan 1 x then sin x =
2
1
cos x = 2 (eix + e−ix ) ;
eix = cos x + i sin x ;
2t
,
1+t2
cos x =
sin x =
1
2i
√
a2 + b2 and cos φ = a/R, sin φ = b/R.
1−t2
.
1+t2
(eix − e−ix )
e−ix = cos x − i sin x
6. COMPLEX NUMBERS
i=
√
−1
Note:- ‘j’ often used rather than ‘i’.
Exponential Notation
eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ
De Moivre’s theorem
[r(cos θ + i sin θ)]n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ)
nth roots of complex numbers
If z = reiθ = r(cos θ + i sin θ) then
z 1/n =
√ i(θ+2kπ)/n
n
re
,
k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
HYPERBOLIC IDENTITIES
cosh x = (ex + e−x ) /2
tanh x = sinh x/ cosh x
sechx = 1/ cosh x
sinh x = (ex − e−x ) /2
cosechx = 1/ sinh x
coth x = cosh x/ sinh x = 1/ tanh x
cosh ix = cos x
sinh ix = i sin x
cos ix = cosh x
sin ix = i sinh x
cosh2 A − sinh2 A = 1
sech2 A = 1 − tanh2 A
cosech 2 A = coth2 A − 1
7. SERIES
Powers of Natural Numbers
n
1
k = n(n + 1) ;
2
k=1
n
n
1
1
k = n(n + 1)(2n + 1);
k 3 = n2 (n + 1)2
6
4
k=1
k=1
2
n−1
Sn =
Arithmetic
(a + kd) =
k=0
n
{2a + (n − 1)d}
2
Geometric (convergent for −1 < r < 1)
n−1
ark =
Sn =
k=0
a(1 − rn )
a
, S∞ =
1−r
1−r
Binomial (convergent for |x| < 1)
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx +
where
n!
n!
x2 + ... +
xr + ...
(n − 2)!2!
(n − r)!r!
n(n − 1)(n − 2)...(n − r + 1)
n!
=
(n − r)!r!
r!
Maclaurin series
xk (k)
x2
f (x) = f (0) + xf (0) + f (0) + ... + f (0) + Rk+1
2!
k!
where Rk+1 =
xk+1 (k+1)
f
(θx), 0 < θ < 1
(k + 1)!
Taylor series
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf (a) +
where Rk+1 =
h2
hk
f (a) + ... + f (k) (a) + Rk+1
2!
k!
hk+1 (k+1)
(a + θh) , 0 < θ < 1.
f
(k + 1)!
OR
f (x) = f (x0 ) + (x − x0 )f (x0 ) +
where Rk+1 =
(x − x0 )2
(x − x0 )k (k)
f (x0 ) + ... +
f (x0 ) + Rk+1
2!
k!
(x − x0 )k+1 (k+1)
(x0 + (x − x0 )θ), 0 < θ < 1
f
(k + 1)!
9. DERIVATIVES
function
derivative
xn
nxn−1
ex
ex
ax (a > 0)
ax na
nx
1
x
loga x
1
x na
sin x
cos x
cos x
− sin x
tan x
sec2 x
cosec x
− cosec x cot x
sec x
sec x tan x
sin−1 x
− cosec 2 x
1
√
1 − x2
cos−1 x
−√
cot x
1
1 − x2
sinh x
1
1 + x2
cosh x
cosh x
sinh x
tanh x
sech 2 x
cosech x
− cosech x coth x
tan−1 x
sech x
− sech x tanh x
sinh−1 x
− cosech2 x
1
√
1 + x2
cosh−1 x(x > 1)
√
tanh−1 x(|x| < 1)
1
1 − x2
coth−1 x(|x| > 1)
−
coth x
1
x2 − 1
x2
1
−1
10. Product Rule
d
dv
du
(u(x)v(x)) = u(x) + v(x)
dx
dx
dx
Quotient Rule
d
dx
u(x)
v(x)
=
dv
v(x) du − u(x) dx
dx
[v(x)]2
Chain Rule
d
(f (g(x))) = f (g(x)) × g (x)
dx
Leibnitz’s theorem
n(n − 1) (n−2) (2)
n!
dn
.g +...+
f (n−r) .g (r) +...+f.g (n)
(f.g) = f (n) .g+nf (n−1) .g (1) +
f
n
dx
2!
(n − r)!r!
11. INTEGRALS
function
dg(x)
f (x)
dx
xn (n = −1)
f (x)g(x) −
e
ex
sin x
− cos x
1
x
x
cos x
tan x
cosec x
sec x
cot x
1
2 + x2
a
integral
xn+1
n+1
df (x)
g(x)dx
dx
n|x|
Note:- n|x| + K = n|x/x0 |
sin x
n| sec x|
− n| cosec x + cot x|
n tan x
2
or
n| sec x + tan x| = n tan
π
4
+
x
2
n| sin x|
x
1
tan−1
a
a
a2
1
− x2
1 a+x
n
2a a − x
or
x
1
tanh−1
a
a
x2
1
− a2
1 x−a
n
2a x + a
or
−
x
a
(|x| < a)
1
x
coth−1
a
a
1
√
2 − x2
a
sin−1
1
√
2 + x2
a
sinh−1
x
a
or
n x+
1
√
x 2 − a2
sinh x
cosh−1
x
a
or
n|x +
cosh x
cosh x
(|x| > a)
sinh x
tanh x
cosech x
(a > |x|)
√
x 2 + a2
√
x 2 − a2 |
n cosh x
− n |cosechx + cothx|
sech x
2 tan−1 ex
coth x
n| sinh x|
or
n tanh x
2
(|x| > a)
12. Double integral
f (x, y)dxdy =
g(r, s)Jdrds
where
J=
∂(x, y)
=
∂(r, s)
∂x
∂r
∂y
∂r
∂x
∂s
∂y
∂s
13. LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
˜
f (s) =
function
1
tn
eat
sin ωt
cos ωt
sinh ωt
cosh ωt
t sin ωt
∞ −st
f (t)dt
0 e
transform
1
s
n!
n+1
s
1
s−a
ω
s2 + ω 2
s
2 + ω2
s
ω
2 − ω2
s
s
s2 − ω 2
(s2
2ωs
+ ω 2 )2
t cos ωt
s2 − ω 2
(s2 + ω 2 )2
Ha (t) = H(t − a)
e−as
s
δ(t)
1
eat tn
n!
(s − a)n+1
eat sin ωt
ω
(s − a)2 + ω 2
eat cos ωt
s−a
(s − a)2 + ω 2
eat sinh ωt
ω
(s − a)2 − ω 2
eat cosh ωt
s−a
(s − a)2 − ω 2
14. ˜
Let f (s) = L {f (t)} then
˜
= f (s − a),
L eat f (t)
L {tf (t)} = −
f (t)
t
L
d ˜
(f (s)),
ds
∞
=
˜
f (x)dx if this exists.
x=s
Derivatives and integrals
˜
Let y = y(t) and let y = L {y(t)} then
dy
dt
d2 y
L
dt2
L
L
t
τ =0
y(τ )dτ
= s˜ − y0 ,
y
= s2 y − sy0 − y0 ,
˜
1
y
˜
s
=
where y0 and y0 are the values of y and dy/dt respectively at t = 0.
Time delay
Let
then
0
g(t) = Ha (t)f (t − a) =
t<a
f (t − a) t > a
˜
L {g(t)} = e−as f (s).
Scale change
L {f (kt)} =
1˜ s
f
.
k
k
Periodic functions
Let f (t) be of period T then
L {f (t)} =
1
1 − e−sT
T
t=0
e−st f (t)dt.
15. Convolution
Let
then
f (t) ∗ g(t) =
t
x=0
f (x)g(t − x)dx =
t
x=0
f (t − x)g(x)dx
˜ g
L {f (t) ∗ g(t)} = f (s)˜(s).
RLC circuit
For a simple RLC circuit with initial charge q0 and initial current i0 ,
1
1
˜
E = r + Ls +
i − Li0 +
q0 .
Cs
Cs
Limiting values
initial value theorem
lim f (t) = s→∞ sf (s),
lim ˜
t→0+
final value theorem
lim f (t) =
t→∞
∞
0
f (t)dt =
provided these limits exist.
˜
lim sf (s),
s→0+
˜
lim f (s)
s→0+
16. Z TRANSFORMS
˜
Z {f (t)} = f (z) =
∞
f (kT )z −k
k=0
function
transform
δt,nT
e−at
z −n (n ≥ 0)
z
z − e−aT
te−at
T ze−aT
(z − e−aT )2
t2 e−at
T 2 ze−aT (z + e−aT )
(z − e−aT )3
sinh at
cosh at
z2
z sinh aT
− 2z cosh aT + 1
z2
z(z − cosh aT )
− 2z cosh aT + 1
e−at sin ωt
ze−aT sin ωT
z 2 − 2ze−aT cos ωT + e−2aT
e−at cos ωt
z(z − e−aT cos ωT )
z 2 − 2ze−aT cos ωT + e−2aT
te−at sin ωt
T ze−aT (z 2 − e−2aT ) sin ωT
(z 2 − 2ze−aT cos ωT + e−2aT )2
te−at cos ωt
T ze−aT (z 2 cos ωT − 2ze−aT + e−2aT cos ωT )
(z 2 − 2ze−aT cos ωT + e−2aT )2
Shift Theorem
˜
Z {f (t + nT )} = z n f (z) − n−1 z n−k f (kT ) (n > 0)
k=0
Initial value theorem
˜
f (0) = limz→∞ f (z)
17. Final value theorem
˜
f (∞) = lim (z − 1)f (z)
provided f (∞) exists.
z→1
Inverse Formula
f (kT ) =
1
2π
π
−π
˜
eikθ f (eiθ )dθ
FOURIER SERIES AND TRANSFORMS
Fourier series
∞
1
{an cos nωt + bn sin nωt}
f (t) = a0 +
2
n=1
where
2
T
2
=
T
an =
bn
t0 +T
t0
t0 +T
t0
f (t) cos nωt dt
f (t) sin nωt dt
(period T = 2π/ω)
18. Half range Fourier series
sine series
an = 0, bn =
4
T
cosine series
bn = 0, an =
4
T
T /2
0
f (t) sin nωt dt
T /2
0
f (t) cos nωt dt
Finite Fourier transforms
sine transform
˜
fs (n) =
f (t) =
4
T
∞
T /2
0
f (t) sin nωt dt
˜
fs (n) sin nωt
n=1
cosine transform
4 T /2
f (t) cos nωt dt
T 0
∞
1˜
˜
fc (0) +
fc (n) cos nωt
f (t) =
2
n=1
˜
fc (n) =
Fourier integral
1
1
lim f (t) + lim f (t) =
t 0
2 t 0
2π
∞
−∞
eiωt
∞
−∞
f (u)e−iωu du dω
Fourier integral transform
1
˜
f (ω) = F {f (t)} = √
2π
∞
−∞
1
˜
f (t) = F −1 f (ω) = √
2π
e−iωu f (u) du
∞
−∞
˜
eiωt f (ω) dω
19. NUMERICAL FORMULAE
Iteration
Newton Raphson method for refining an approximate root x0 of f (x) = 0
xn+1 = xn −
Particular case to find
√
f (xn )
f (xn )
N use xn+1 =
1
2
xn +
N
xn
.
Secant Method
xn+1 = xn − f (xn )/
f (xn ) − f (xn−1 )
xn − xn−1
Interpolation
∆fn = fn+1 − fn , δfn = fn+ 1 − fn− 1
2
2
1
fn = fn − fn−1 , µfn =
f 1 + fn− 1
2
2 n+ 2
Gregory Newton Formula
fp = f0 + p∆f0 +
p!
p(p − 1) 2
∆ f0 + ... +
∆r f0
2!
(p − r)!r!
where p =
x − x0
h
Lagrange’s Formula for n points
n
y=
yi i (x)
i=1
where
i (x)
=
Πn
j=1,j=i (x − xj )
n
Πj=1,j=i (xi − xj )
20. Numerical differentiation
Derivatives at a tabular point
1
1
hf0 = µδf0 − µδ 3 f0 + µδ 5 f0 − ...
6
30
1 4
1 6
h2 f0 = δ 2 f0 − δ f0 + δ f0 − ...
12
90
1 2
1 3
1
1
hf0 = ∆f0 − ∆ f0 + ∆ f0 − ∆4 f0 + ∆5 f0 − ...
2
3
4
5
11 4
5 5
h2 f0 = ∆2 f0 − ∆3 f0 + ∆ f0 − ∆ f0 + ...
12
6
Numerical Integration
x0 +h
T rapeziumRule
x0
fi = f (x0 + ih), E = −
where
h
(f0 + f1 ) + E
2
f (x)dx
h3
f (a), x0 < a < x0 + h
12
Composite Trapezium Rule
x0 +nh
x0
f (x)dx
h2
h
h4
{f0 + 2f1 + 2f2 + ...2fn−1 + fn } − (fn − f0 ) +
(f − f0 )...
2
12
720 n
where f0 = f (x0 ), fn = f (x0 + nh), etc
x0 +2h
Simpson sRule
x0
f (x)dx
h5 (4)
E = − f (a)
90
where
h
(f0 +4f1 +f2 )+E
3
x0 < a < x0 + 2h.
Composite Simpson’s Rule (n even)
x0 +nh
x0
f (x)dx
where
h
(f0 + 4f1 + 2f2 + 4f3 + 2f4 + ... + 2fn−2 + 4fn−1 + fn ) + E
3
E=−
nh5 (4)
f (a).
180
x0 < a < x0 + nh
21. Gauss order 1. (Midpoint)
1
−1
f (x)dx = 2f (0) + E
2
E = f (a).
3
where
−1<a<1
Gauss order 2.
1
f (x)dx = f − √ + f
−1
3
1
where
E=
1
√ +E
3
1 v
f (a).
135
−1<a<1
Differential Equations
To solve y = f (x, y) given initial condition y0 at x0 , xn = x0 + nh.
Euler’s forward method
yn+1 = yn + hf (xn , yn )
n = 0, 1, 2, ...
Euler’s backward method
yn+1 = yn + hf (xn+1 , yn+1 )
n = 0, 1, 2, ...
Heun’s method (Runge Kutta order 2)
h
yn+1 = yn + (f (xn , yn ) + f (xn + h, yn + hf (xn , yn ))).
2
Runge Kutta order 4.
h
yn+1 = yn + (K1 + 2K2 + 2K3 + K4 )
6
where
K1 = f (xn , yn )
h
hK1
K2 = f xn + , yn +
2
2
hK2
h
K3 = f xn + , yn +
2
2
K4 = f (xn + h, yn + hK3 )
22. Chebyshev Polynomials
Tn (x) = cos n(cos−1 x)
To (x) = 1
Un−1 (x) =
T1 (x) = x
Tn (x)
sin [n(cos−1 x)]
√
=
n
1 − x2
Tm (Tn (x)) = Tmn (x).
Tn+1 (x) = 2xTn (x) − Tn−1 (x)
Un+1 (x) = 2xUn (x) − Un−1 (x)
1 Tn+1 (x) Tn−1 (x)
Tn (x)dx =
−
+ constant,
2
n+1
n−1
where
and
1
f (x) = a0 T0 (x) + a1 T1 (x)...aj Tj (x) + ...
2
2 π
aj =
f (cos θ) cos jθdθ
π 0
f (x)dx = constant +A1 T1 (x) + A2 T2 (x) + ...Aj Tj (x) + ...
where Aj = (aj−1 − aj+1 )/2j
j≥1
n≥2
j≥0
23. VECTOR FORMULAE
Scalar product a.b = ab cos θ = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
i
j
k
n
Vector product a × b = ab sin θˆ = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )i + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )k
Triple products
a1 a2 a3
[a, b, c] = (a × b).c = a.(b × c) = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
a × (b × c) = (a.c)b − (a.b)c
Vector Calculus
≡
grad φ ≡
φ, div A ≡
div grad φ ≡
.(
2
.A, curl A ≡
φ) ≡
div curl A = 0
∂ ∂ ∂
, ,
∂x ∂y ∂z
2
×A
φ (for scalars only)
curl grad φ ≡ 0
A = grad div A − curl curl A
(αβ) = α
β+β
α
div (αA) = α div A + A.( α)
curl (αA) = α curl A − A × ( α)
div (A × B) = B. curl A − A. curl B
curl (A × B) = A div B − B div A + (B.
)A − (A.
)B
24. grad (A.B) = A × curl B + B × curl A + (A.
)B + (B.
)A
Integral Theorems
Divergence theorem
surface
A.dS =
volume
div A dV
Stokes’ theorem
surface
( curl A).dS =
contour
A.dr
Green’s theorems
volume
volume
ψ
2
2
φ−φ
2
ψ)dV
=
φ + ( φ)( ψ) dV
=
(ψ
ψ
surface
surface
ψ
∂φ
∂ψ
|dS|
−φ
∂n
∂n
∂φ
|dS|
∂n
where
ˆ
dS = n|dS|
Green’s theorem in the plane
(P dx + Qdy) =
∂Q ∂P
−
∂x
∂y
dxdy
25. MECHANICS
Kinematics
Motion constant acceleration
v = u + f t,
1
1
s = ut + f t2 = (u + v)t
2
2
v2 = u2 + 2f .s
General solution of
d2 x
dt2
= −ω 2 x is
x = a cos ωt + b sin ωt = R sin(ωt + φ)
where R =
√
a2 + b2 and cos φ = a/R, sin φ = b/R.
˙
In polar coordinates the velocity is (r, rθ) = rer + rθeθ and the acceleration is
˙ ˙
˙
˙
˙ ¨
¨
¨
r
r − rθ2 , rθ + 2rθ = (¨ − rθ2 )er + (rθ + 2rθ)eθ .
˙˙
˙˙
Centres of mass
The following results are for uniform bodies:
hemispherical shell, radius r
hemisphere, radius r
right circular cone, height h
arc, radius r and angle 2θ
sector, radius r and angle 2θ
1
r
2
3
r
8
3
h
4
from vertex
(r sin θ)/θ
from centre
2
( 3 r sin θ)/θ
from centre
from centre
from centre
Moments of inertia
i. The moment of inertia of a body of mass m about an axis = I + mh2 , where I
is the moment of inertial about the parallel axis through the mass-centre and h
is the distance between the axes.
ii. If I1 and I2 are the moments of inertia of a lamina about two perpendicular
axes through a point 0 in its plane, then its moment of inertia about the axis
through 0 perpendicular to its plane is I1 + I2 .
26. iii. The following moments of inertia are for uniform bodies about the axes stated:
rod, length , through mid-point, perpendicular to rod
1
m 2
12
2
hoop, radius r, through centre, perpendicular to hoop
mr
disc, radius r, through centre, perpendicular to disc
1
mr2
2
2
mr2
5
sphere, radius r, diameter
Work done
W =
tB
tA
F.
dr
dt.
dt
27. ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
A group G is a set of elements {a, b, c, . . .} — with a binary operation ∗ such that
i. a ∗ b is in G for all a, b in G
ii. a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c for all a, b, c in G
iii. G contains an element e, called the identity element, such that e ∗ a = a = a ∗ e
for all a in G
iv. given any a in G, there exists in G an element a−1 , called the element inverse
to a, such that a−1 ∗ a = e = a ∗ a−1 .
A commutative (or Abelian) group is one for which a ∗ b = b ∗ a for all a, b, in G.
A field F is a set of elements {a, b, c, . . .} — with two binary operations + and . such
that
i. F is a commutative group with respect to + with identity 0
ii. the non-zero elements of F form a commutative group with respect to . with
identity 1
iii. a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c for all a, b, c, in F .
A vector space V over a field F is a set of elements {a, b, c, . . .} — with a binary
operation + such that
i. they form a commutative group under +;
and, for all λ, µ in F and all a, b, in V ,
ii. λa is defined and is in V
iii. λ(a + b) = λa + λb
28. iv. (λ + µ)a = λa + µa
v. (λ.µ)a = λ(µa)
vi. if 1 is an element of F such that 1.λ = λ for all λ in F , then 1a = a.
An equivalence relation R between the elements {a, b, c, . . .} — of a set C is a relation
such that, for all a, b, c in C
i. aRa (R is reflextive)
ii. aRb ⇒ bRa (R is symmetric)
iii. (aRb and bRc) ⇒ aRc (R is transitive).
29. PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
Name
Probability distribution /
Parameters
Mean
Variance
np
np(1 − p)
λ
λ
µ
σ2
1
λ
1
λ2
density function
Binomial
n, p
P (X = r) =
n!
pr (1
(n−r)!r!
r = 0, 1, 2, ..., n
Poisson
P (X = n) =
λ
− p)n−r ,
e−λ λn
,
n!
n = 0, 1, 2, ......
Normal
µ, σ
1
√
σ 2π
f (x) =
exp{− 1
2
x−µ 2
},
σ
−∞ < x < ∞
f (x) = λe−λx ,
λ
Exponential
x > 0,
λ>0
THE F -DISTRIBUTION
The function tabulated on the next page is the inverse cumulative distribution
function of Fisher’s F -distribution having ν1 and ν2 degrees of freedom. It is defined
by
P =
Γ
Γ
1
ν
2 1
1
ν
2 1
+ 1 ν2
2
Γ
1
ν
2 2
1
ν1
1
ν12 ν22
x
ν2
0
1
1
u 2 ν1 −1 (ν2 + ν1 u)− 2 (ν1 +ν2 ) du.
If X has an F -distribution with ν1 and ν2 degrees of freedom then P r.(X ≤ x) = P .
The table lists values of x for P = 0.95, P = 0.975 and P = 0.99, the upper number
in each set being the value for P = 0.95.
34. PHYSICAL AND ASTRONOMICAL CONSTANTS
2.998 × 108 m s−1
c
Speed of light in vacuo
e
Elementary charge
mn
Neutron rest mass
mp
Proton rest mass
me
Electron rest mass
h
Planck’s constant
¯
h
Dirac’s constant (= h/2π)
k
Boltzmann’s constant
G
Gravitational constant
σ
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
c1
First Radiation Constant (= 2πhc2 )
c2
Second Radiation Constant (= hc/k) 1.439 × 10−2 m K
εo
Permittivity of free space
µo
Permeability of free scpae
NA
Avogadro constant
R
Gas constant
a0
Bohr radius
µB
Bohr magneton
α
Fine structure constant (= 1/137.0)
M
Solar Mass
R
Solar radius
L
Solar luminosity
M⊕
Earth Mass
R⊕
Mean earth radius
1 light year
1 AU
Astronomical Unit
1 pc
Parsec
1 year
1.602 × 10−19 C
1.675 × 10−27 kg
1.673 × 10−27 kg
9.110 × 10−31 kg
6.626 × 10−34 J s
1.055 × 10−34 J s
1.381 × 10−23 J K−1
6.673 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2
5.670 × 10−8 J m−2 K−4 s−1
3.742 × 10−16 J m2 s−1
8.854 × 10−12 C2 N−1 m−2
4π × 10−7 H m−1
6.022 ×1023 mol−1
8.314 J K−1 mol−1
5.292 ×10−11 m
9.274 ×10−24 J T−1
7.297 ×10−3
1.989 ×1030 kg
6.96 ×108 m
3.827 ×1026 J s−1
5.976 ×1024 kg
6.371 ×106 m
9.461 ×1015 m
1.496 ×1011 m
3.086 ×1016 m
3.156 ×107 s
ENERGY CONVERSION : 1 joule (J) = 6.2415 × 1018 electronvolts (eV)