lmece407

Course E C E 4 0 7 Course Unified electronics lab V
Code: Title:

L T P Credit
(or Max. Marks) Pre-requisites:NA
0 0 4 4 Course Contents:
1 Use slotted line
1. To determine unknown frequency
2. To find SWVR and Reflection coefficient
2 1. To investigate the properties of a system comprising a dipole and a
parasitic element
2. Understand the terms ‘driven element’, ‘reflector’, ‘director’
3. To know the form of a YAGI antenna and examine multi element yagi.
4. To see how gain and directivity increase as element numbers
increase.
3 To study the effect of thickness of conductors upon the bandwidth of dipole.
4 Understand the terms ‘baying’ and ‘stacking’ as applied to antennas.
1. To investigate stacked and bayed yagi antennas.
2. To compare their performance with a single yagi.
5 Implementation of Time Division Multiplexing system using matlab/simulink.
6 Implementation of pulse code modulation and demodulation using
matlab/simulink.
MTE
7 Implementation of delta modulation and demodulation and observe effect of
slope Overload using matlab/simulink
8 Implementation of pulse data coding techniques for various formats using
matlab/simulink..
9 Implementation of Data decoding techniques for various formats using
matlab/simulink..
10 Implementation of amplitude shift keying modulator and demodulator using
matlab/simulink...
11 Implementation of frequency shift keying modulator and demodulator using
matlab/simulink..
12 Implementation of phase shift keying modulator and demodulator using
matlab/simulink.

Textbook: Lab Manual ECE407
Additional Readings:

1. Microwave Devices And Circuits Third Edition, By Samuel Y. Liao
2. Contemporary Communication System using matlab by John G. Proakis Masoud Salehi
3. Modern Digital and Communication Systems by B.P. Lathi Zhi Ding
4. Analog Communication by V. Chandra Sekhar

Experiment No 1
OBJECT
By the use of the slotted line
a) To determine the unknown frequency
b) To determine the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) and Reflection Coefficient.

APPARATUS
Transmitter Mod MW-TX,
One slotted line MW-5.
Loads of different values (OC,SC,75Ω,50Ω,100Ω)
RF cable (Zo=75Ω)
Voltmeter
THEORY
When power is applied to transmission line, voltage & current appear. If Z L=ZO, load absorbs
all power & none is reflected. If ZL≠ZO, some power is absorbed & rest is reflected. We have
one set of Voltage & Current waves traveling towards load & a reflected set traveling back to
generator. These sets of traveling waves, in opposite directions, set up an interference pattern
called Standing Waves. Maxima (antinodes) & minima (node) of Voltage & Current occur at
fixed positions.
The slotted line is used to measure voltage and current directly on the various sections of a
coaxial line, as by the slot you can enter the electrical and magnetic fields between the two
connectors constituting the coaxial line.
In presence of standing wave, the voltage (or current) maximum and minimum value can bee
seen; the distance between a maximum and the adjacent minimum is equal to one fourth the
wave length; the speed factor of the line is equal to1 because the dielectric is air. Once the
speed factor is known, by measuring the distance between two minima and multiplying it by
two, it is possible to obtain the frequency of the signal applied to the slotted line, if this is
unknown.
The standing wave ratio (SWR) is equal to the ratio to the maximum to the minimum value;
in fact, on the maximum, the direct and reflected wave value (of voltage and current) are
added and on the minimum are subtracted. If the reflected wave does not exist, voltage and
current keep constant along all the line and their ratio is equal to the characteristic impedance
Zo; the SWR is equal to 1. Such a line is called a flat line.
The output power of the generator, tuned to the lowest frequencies (for example 701.5 MHz),
must be regulated to the maximum, connect the output of the generator to the

slotted line with 75 Ω cable, 1 m long, connect 75 Ω to the other end of the slotted line: the
line is thus terminated on its characteristic impedance.
If the machining is perfect, by moving the probes along the slotted line the signal amplitude
will keep almost constant any way there may be variations which are due to the connectors or
to slight variation of the probes alignment.
Change the termination of 75 Ω with a 50 Ω and measure the voltage along the line: it has
stronger minimum and maximum values than the last ones.
Check if the distance between minimum and maximum is equal to ¼ the wavelength, in other
words by varying the frequency and repeating measurement, you can observe how the
distance between max an min is longer or shorter if you decrease or increase the frequency
repeat the exercise with termination of 100 ohm
Note that, with the help of slotted line, you can distinguish if the load is greater or smaller than the
characteristic impedance of the line, In fact, with 100 ohm the voltage minimum is at ¼ wave
length from the load, while on the load there is a maximum; with 50 ohm, the voltage minimum is
on the load.

PROCEDURE
1. Connect the generator (transmitter) to the slotted line through RF cable.
2. Terminate the line by attaching a load (ZL) on other end of line.
3. Insert probes of voltmeter in the slots provided on the trailer of the slotted line.
4. Turn on the generator and excite the cable with RF waves.
5. Move the trailer on the slotted line. Positions of maximum & minimum voltage appear
alternately on the slotted line.
6. Note down the max & min values of voltage.
7. Also note down the positions of the voltage minima and voltage maxima on the scale
8. Determine VSWR by the following formula:

Measured VSWR= V max / V min
9. Determine the calculated VSWR by the formula:

VSWR = 1 + Г
1-Г
where Г= ZL – Z0
ZL + Z0
10. Calculate the unknown frequency with the help of the following formula.
λ / 2 =distance between consecutive V maxima or minima
f=c/λ
11. Repeat same procedure for different loads (ZL).

OBSERVATIONS
Frequency of incident wave =

CALCULATIONS

RESULT

PRACTICAL NO 2

OBJECT
• To investigate the properties of a system comprising a dipole and a parasitic element
• Understand the terms ‘driven element’, ‘reflector’, ‘director’
• To know the form of a YAGI antenna and examine multi element yagi.
• To see how gain and directivity increase as element numbers increase.

APPARATUS
Antenna Lab hardware
Discovery Software
Dipole elements
Yagi boom
THEORY
Antenna: An antenna is a transducer designed to transmit or receive radio waves which are a
class of electromagnetic waves. In other words, antennas convert radio frequency electrical
currents into electromagnetic waves and vice versa. Antennas are used in systems such as
radio and television broadcasting, point-to-point radio communication, wireless LAN, radar,
and space exploration. Antennas usually work in air or outer space, but can also be operated
under water or even through soil and rocks at certain frequencies for short distances.
Physically, an antenna is an arrangement of conductors that generate a radiating
electromagnetic field in response to an applied alternating voltage and the associated
alternating electric current, or can be placed in an electromagnetic field so that the field will
induce an alternating current in the antenna and a voltage between its terminals.
Simple Dipole Antenna: The dipole antenna is simply two wires pointed in opposite
directions arranged either horizontally or vertically, with one end of each wire connected to
the radio and the other end hanging free in space. This is the simplest practical antenna and it
is also used as reference model for other antennas. Generally, the dipole is considered to be
omni-directional in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the antenna, but it has deep nulls in
the directions of the axis.
Yagi Uda Antenna
An antenna with a driven element and one, or more, parasitic element is generally know as a
“yagi” , after on of its inventors (Mssrs Yagi and Uda).
With the length of the second dipole (the un-driven, or “parasitic” element) shorter then the
driven dipole (the driven element) the direction of maximum radiation is from the driven
element towards the parasitic element. In this case, the parasitic element is called the
|”director”.
With the length of the second dipole longer than the driven dipole the direction of maximum
radiation is from the parasitic element towards the driven element. In the case, the parasitic
element is called the “reflector”

PROCEDURE
1. Identify one of the Yagi Boom Assemblies and mount it on top of the Generator
Tower.
2. Ensure that all of the elements are removed, except for the dipole.
3. Ensure that the Motor Enable switch is off and then switch on the trainer.
4. Launch a signal strength vs. angle 2D polar graph and immediately switch on the
motor enable.
5. Ensure that the Receiver and Generator antennas are aligned with each other and that
the spacing between them is about one meter.
6. Set the dipole length to 10cm
7. Acquire a new plot at 1500MHz.
8. Observe the polar plot.
9. Identify one of the other undriven dipole antenna element.
10. move the driven dipole forward on the boom by about 2.5 cm and mount a second
undriven dipole element behind the first at a spacing of about 5 cm.
11. set the undriven length to 10 cm
12. acquire a second new plot at 1500 MHz

Has the polar pattern changed by adding the second element?
_____________________________________________________________________
13. change the spacing to 2.5cm and acquire a third new plot at 1500 MHz

What changes has the alteration in spacing made to the gain and directivity?
_____________________________________________________________________
CHANGING THE LENGTH OF THE PARASITIC ELEMENT
14. Launch a new signal strength vs. angle 2D polar graph window.
15. Acquire a new plot at 1500 MHz
16. Extend the length of the un-driven element to 11cm.
17. Acquire a second new plot at 1500 MHz.
18. Reduce the length of the un-driven element to 8cm.
19. Acquire a third new plot at 1500MHz.

What changes has the alteration in length made to the gain and directivity?
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
ADDING A SECOND REFLECTOR
20. Mount the driven dipole on the boom forward from the axis of rotation by about
2.5cm and mount a second un-driven dipole element behind the first, at a spacing of
about 5cm.
21. Set the dipole length to 10cm and the un-driven dipole length to 11cm.
22. Acquire a new plot at 1500MHz.
24. Mount a second parasitic element about 5cm from the first parasitic reflector and
adjust its length to 11cm.
25. Acquire a second new plot at 1500MHz.

Is there any significant difference between the two plots?
_____________________________________________________________________
27. Change the spacing between the two reflectors and acquire a third new plot at
1500MHz.

Is there any significant difference between the plots, now?
_____________________________________________________________________You
will find that the addition of a second reflector has little effect on the gain and directivity of
the antenna, irrespective of the spacing between the two reflectors.
ADDING DIRECTORS
28. Remove the second reflector element from the boom.
29. Launch a new signal strength vs. angle 2D polar graph window.
30. Acquire a new plot at 1500 MHz.
31. Observe the polar plot
32. Mount a parasitic element about 5cm in front of the driven
33. element and adjust its length to 8.5cm.

Is there any significant difference between the two plots?
_____________________________________________________________________
36. Move the director to about 2.5 cm in front of the driven element.
37. Acquire a third new plot at 1500 MHz

How does the new plot compare with the previous two?
____________________________________________________________________
39. Launch another new signal strength vs. angle 2d polar graph window.
41. Add a second director 5 cm in front of the second.
43. Add a third director 5 cm in front of the second.
44. Acquire a third new plot at 1500 MHz.
45. Add a fourth director 5 cm in front of the third.
46. Acquire a fourth new plot at 1500 MHz

How do the gains and directivities compare?
_____________________________________________________________________
47. Launch another new signal strength vs. angle 2D polar graph window.
49. Move the reflector to 2.5 cm behind the driven element. Acquire a second new plot at
1500 MHz.

Does the driven element – reflector spacing have much effect on the gain or directivity
of the antenna?
_____________________________________________________________________
RESULT
The addition of a second parasitic dipole element close to the driven dipole gives rise to a
change in directivity and an increase in gain in a preferred direction. It also showed that the
length of the parasitic element had an effect on the direction of maximum gain. If the
parasitic element is the same length, or longer than the driven element the gain is in a
direction from parasitic element to driven element. The parasitic element acts as a reflector. If
the parasitic element is shorter than the driven element the gain is in a direction from driven
element to parasitic element. The parasitic element acts as a director.

PRACTICAL NO 3
OBJECT
To study the effect of thickness of conductors upon the bandwidth of dipole.
APPARATUS
Electronica Veneta (turntable) with stand
Field meter SFM 1 EV
Microwave generator
75ohm coaxial cable
Basic dipole antenna short thick conductors (8mm)
Basic dipole antenna Short Thin dipole (3mm)
THEORY
Dipole:
It consists of two poles that are oppositely charged.
Dipole antenna:
The simple dipole is one of the basic antennas. It is an antenna with a center-fed driven
element for transmitting or receiving radio frequency energy. This is the directed antenna i.e.
radiations take place only forward or backward. Its characteristic impedance is 73Ω.
Half wave dipole:
Half wave dipole is an antenna formed by two conductors whose total length is half the wave
length. In general radio engineering, the term dipole usually means a half-wave dipole
(center-fed).
Thin and thick dipole
Theortically the dipole length must be half wave; this is true if the wavelength/conductor’s
dia ratio is infinite. Usually there is a shortening coefficient K (ranging from
0.9-0.99)according to which the half wavelength in free space must be multiplied by K in
order to have the half wave dipole length, once the diameter of the conductor to be used is
known.(refer fig)
Bandwidth:
The range of frequencies in which maximum reception is achieved.
Effect of thickness:
By increasing the conductor diameter in respect to the wavelength, the dipole characteristic
impedance will increase too in respect to the value of 73Ω. On the other hand outside the
center frequency range, the antenna reactance varies more slowly in a thick than in a thick
antenna.
This means, with the same shifting in respect to the center frequency, the impedance of an
antenna with larger diameter is more constant and consequently the SWR assumes lower
values. Practically the BANDWIDTH is wider.

PROCEDURE
1. Construct a dipole with arms of 3mm diameter (short) and mount on the central support of
the tuntable.
2. Set the antenna and instruments as shown in figure.
3. Set the generator to a determinate output level and to the center frequency of the antenna
under test. 701.5 MHz for measurements with short (thick or thin dipole)
4. Adjust the dipole length and sensitivity of the meter to obtain the maximum reading (10 th
LED glowing)
5. Now decrease the frequency up to the value such that the 10 th LED keeps on glowing. Note
the value as f2.
6. Now increase the frequency up to the value such that the 10 th LED keeps on glowing. Note
the value as f1.
7. Note down the difference between these two frequencies, this will be the bandwidth

8. Calculate the wavelength for the resonance frequency of around 700 MHz for short dipole
using the formula f/c=λ
9. The ratio used for calculating the shortening coefficient is 2/λ
where d=dia of conductor
11. From graph obtain a shortening coefficient K.
12. Calculate the physical length of Dipole and compare with the measured length.

Physical length of half wavelength dipole= x K
13. Construct a dipole with arms of 8mm diameter (short).
14. Repeat the same procedure for thick dipole.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS
Resonant frequency= MHz
f/c=λ= 300/ = cm
Measured length of short dipole thin= 220mm
Measured length of short thick dipole=195mm
THIIN dipole: d=
The ratio used for calculating the shortening coefficient is (with a dia of 3mm)
=d2/λK=
From graph we obtain a coefficient. of 0.960 for the thin dipole
Physical length of half wavelength dipole= x K=

THICK dipole: d=
The ratio used for calculating the shortening coefficient is with a diameter of 8mm
=d2/λK=

From graph we obtain a coefficient of 0.947 for thick dipole
Calculated physical length of half wavelength dipole= x K=
(These values refer to a dipole in air. Actually the dipole under consideration is not totally in
air because for mechanical reasons, its internal part is in a dielectric. This slightly increases
the resonance frequency.)
RESULT
With the same shifting in respect to the center frequency, the impedance of an antenna with
larger diameter is more constant and consequently the SWR assumes lower values.
Practically the BANDWIDTH is wider. In other words increasing the thickness of conductor
has an effect upon the bandwidth of the dipole.
Thicker the conductor larger would be the bandwidth.

PRACTICAL NO 4
OBJECT
OBUnderstand the terms ‘baying’ and ‘stacking’ as applied to antennas.
UnTo investigate stacked and bayed yagi antennas.
ToTo compare their performance with a single yagi.

THEORY
Yagi antennas may be used side-by-side, or one on top of another to give greater gain or
directivity. This is referred to as baying, or stacking the antennas, respectively.

PROCEDURE
(A)Baying Two Yagis

1. Connected up the hardware of AntennaLab.
2. Loaded the Discovery software.
3. Loaded the NEC-Win software.
4. Ensure that a Yagi Boom Assembly is mounted on the Generator Tower.
5. Building up a 6 element yagi. The dimensions of this are:
Length Spacing
Reflector 11 cm 5cm behind driven
element
Driven Element 10 cm Zero (reference)
Director 1 8.5 cm 2.5 cm in front of
DE
Director 2 8.5 cm 5 cm in front of D1

6. Plot the polar response at 1500 MHz.
7. Without disturbing the elements too much, remove the antenna from the Generator Tower.
8. Identify the Yagi Bay base assembly (the broad grey plastic strip with tapped holes) and
mount this centrally on the Generator Tower.

9. Mount the 6 element yagi onto the Yagi Bay base assembly at three holes from the centre.
10. Assemble an identical 6 element yagi on the other Yagi Boom Assembly and mount this
on the Yagi Bay base assembly at three hole the other side of the centre, ensuring that the
two yagis are pointing in the same direction (towards the Receiver Tower).
11. Identify the 2-Way Combiner and the two 183mm cables.
12. Connect the two 183mm cables to the adjacent connectors on the Combiner and their
other ends to the two 6 element yagis.
13. Connect the cable from the Generator Tower to the remaining connector on the
Combiner.
14. Acquire a new plot for the two bayed antennas onto the same graph as that for the single
6 element yagi.
15. Reverse the driven element on one of the yagis and acquire a third plot
OBSERVATIONS
Does reversing the driven element make much difference to the polar pattern for the
two bayed yagis?
___________________________________________________________________________
How does the directivity of the two bayed yagis compare with the single yagi plot (with
the driven element the correct way round)?
___________________________________________________________________________
How does the forward gain of the two bayed yagis compare with the single yagi plot
(with the driven element the correct way round)?
___________________________________________________________________________
Now, move the two yagis to the outer sets of holes on the Yagi Bay base assembly. Ensure
that you keep the driven elements the same way round as you had before to give the correct
phasing.
Superimpose a plot for this assembly.
How do the directivity and forward gain of the wider spaced yagis compare with the
close spaced yagis?
___________________________________________________________________________

(B) Stacking Two Yagis

1. Identify the Yagi Stack base assembly (the narrow grey plastic strip with tapped holes) and
mount this on the side of the Generator Tower.
2. Mount the 6 element yagi onto the Yagi Stack base assembly at one set of holes above the
centre.
3. Plot the polar response at 1500 MHz.
4. Mount the other 6 element yagi on the Yagi Stack base assembly at the uppermost set of
holes, ensuring that the two yagis are pointing in the same direction (towards the
Receiver Tower)
5. Identify the 2-Way Combiner and the two 183mm coaxial cables.
6. Connect the two 183mm cables to the adjacent connectors on the Combiner and their other
ends to the two 6 element yagis.
7. Connect the cable from the Generator Tower to the remaining connector on the Combiner.
8. Superimpose the polar plot for the two stacked antennas onto that for the single 6 element
yagi.
9. Reverse the driven element on one of the yagis and superimpose a third plot.
10. Change the position of the lower yagi to the bottom set of holes on the Yagi Stack base
assembly. Ensure that the driven elements are correctly phased and superimpose a fourth
polar plot.

OBSERVATIONS
How does the directivity of the different configurations compare?
___________________________________________________________________________
How does the forward gain of the stacked yagis compare with the single yagi?
___________________________________________________________________________
How does the forward gain of the stacked yagis change when the driven element
phasing is incorrect?
___________________________________________________________________________
RESULT

PRACTICAL NO 5
OBJECT
Implementation of Time Division Multiplexing system using matlab/simulink
THEORY
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a type of digital or (rarely) analog multiplexing in which two or
more signals or bit streams are transferred apparently simultaneously as sub-channels in one
communication channel, but are physically taking turns on the channel. The time domain is
divided into several recurrent timeslots of fixed length, one for each sub-channel. A sample byte
or data block of sub-channel 1 is transmitted during timeslot 1, sub-channel 2 during timeslot 2,
etc. One TDM frame consists of one timeslot per sub-channel plus a synchronization channel and
sometimes error correction channel before the synchronization. After the last sub-channel, error
correction, and synchronization, the cycle starts all over again with a new frame, starting with the
second sample, byte or data block from sub-channel 1, etc
For multiple signals to share one medium, the medium must somehow be divided, giving each
signal a portion of the total bandwidth.
The current techniques that can accomplish this include
• Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
• Time division multiplexing (TDM)-Synchronous vs statistical1
• Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
• Code division multiplexing (CDM)
Multiplexing:
Two or more simultaneous transmissions on a single circuit

Figure 5 Multiplexing
Multiplexor (MUX)
Demultiplexor (DEMUX)

Time Division Multiplexing:
Sharing of the signal is accomplished by dividing available transmission time on a medium among
users.
Digital signaling is used exclusively. Time division multiplexing comes in two basic forms:
1. Synchronous time division multiplexing, and
2. Statistical, or asynchronous time division multiplexing.

Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing:
The original time division multiplexing, the multiplexor accepts input from attached devices in a
round-robin fashion and transmits the data in a never ending pattern.
T-1 and ISDN telephone lines are common examples of synchronous time division multiplexing.
If one device generates data at a faster rate than other devices, then the multiplexor must either
sample the incoming data stream from that device more often than it samples the other devices,
or buffer the faster incoming stream.
If a device has nothing to transmit, the multiplexor must still insert a piece of data from that device
into the multiplexed stream. So that the receiver may stay synchronized with the incoming
data stream, the transmitting multiplexor can insert alternating 1s and 0s into the data stream.
Three types popular today of Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing:
• T-1 multiplexing (the classic)
• ISDN multiplexing
• SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork)

The T1 (1.54 Mbps) multiplexor stream is a continuous series of frames of both digitized data and
voice channels.
The ISDN multiplexor stream is also a continuous stream of frames. Each frame contains various
control and sync info
SONET – massive data rates
Statistical Time Division Multiplexing:
A statistical multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations (or why works when you
don’t have to). If a workstation is not active, no space is wasted on the multiplexed stream. A
statistical multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and creates a frame containing only the
data to be transmitted.
To identify each piece of data, an address is included. If the data is of variable size, a length is
also included. More precisely, the transmitted frame contains a collection of data groups.
A statistical multiplexor does not require a line over as high a speed line as synchronous time
division multiplexing since STDM does not assume all sources will transmit all of the time!
Good for low bandwidth lines (used for LANs)
Much more efficient use of bandwidth!

Matlab code for TDM:
% *********** Matlab code for Time Division Multiplexing *************
clc;
close all;
clear all;
% Signal generation
x=0:.5:4*pi; % siganal taken upto 4pi
sig1=8*sin(x); % generate 1st sinusoidal signal
l=length(sig1);
sig2=8*triang(l); % Generate 2nd traingular Sigal

% Display of Both Signal
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(sig1);
title('Sinusoidal Signal');
ylabel('Amplitude--->');
xlabel('Time--->');
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(sig2);
title('Triangular Signal');
xlabel('Time--->');

% Display of Both Sampled Signal
subplot(2,2,3);
stem(sig1);
title('Sampled Sinusoidal Signal');
xlabel('Time--->');
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(sig2);
title('Sampled Triangular Signal');
xlabel('Time--->');
l1=length(sig1);
l2=length(sig2);
for i=1:l1
sig(1,i)=sig1(i); % Making Both row vector to a matrix
sig(2,i)=sig2(i);
end

% TDM of both quantize signal
tdmsig=reshape(sig,1,2*l1);
% Display of TDM Signal
figure

stem(tdmsig);
title('TDM Signal');
xlabel('Time--->');

% Demultiplexing of TDM Signal
demux=reshape(tdmsig,2,l1);
for i=1:l1
sig3(i)=demux(1,i); % Converting The matrix into row vectors
sig4(i)=demux(2,i);
end

% display of demultiplexed signal
figure
subplot(2,1,1)
plot(sig3);
title('Recovered Sinusoidal Signal');
xlabel('Time--->');
subplot(2,1,2)
plot(sig4);
title('Recovered Triangular Signal');
xlabel('Time--->');

Results:
Sinusoidal Signal Triangular Signal
10 8

5 6
Amplitude--->

Amplitude--->

0 4

-5 2

-10 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
Time---> Time--->
Sampled Sinusoidal Signal Sampled Triangular Signal
10 8

5 6
Amplitude--->

Amplitude--->

0 4

-5 2

-10 0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
Time---> Time--->

TDM Signal
8

6

4

2
Amplitude--->

0

-2

-4

-6

-8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time--->

Recovered Sinusoidal Signal
10

5
Amplitude--->

0

-5

-10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time--->
Recovered Triangular Signal
8

6
Amplitude--->

4

2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time--->

PRACTICAL NO 6
OBJECT
Implementation of pulse code modulation and demodulation using matlab/simulink
THEORY
ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION:
A digital signal is superior to an analog signal because it is more robust to noise and can easily
be recovered, corrected and amplified. For this reason, the tendency today is to change an
analog signal to digital data. In this section we describe two techniques, pulse code modulation
and delta modulation
Pulse code Modulation (PCM):
Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog signals,
which was invented by Alec Reeves in 1937. It is the standard form for digital audio in computers
and various Blu-ray, Compact Disc and DVD formats, as well as other uses such as
digital telephone systems. A PCM stream is a digital representation of an analog signal, in which
the magnitude of the analogue signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals, with each sample
being quantized to the nearest value within a range of digital steps.
PCM consists of three steps to digitize an analog signal:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Binary encoding
 Before we sample, we have to filter the signal to limit the maximum frequency of the
signal as it affects the sampling rate.
 Filtering should ensure that we do not distort the signal, ie remove high frequency
components that affect the signal shape.

Figure 6.1 Components of PCM encoder

Sampling:
• Analog signal is sampled every TS secs.
• Ts is referred to as the sampling interval.
• fs = 1/Ts is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency.
• There are 3 sampling methods:
– Ideal - an impulse at each sampling instant
– Natural - a pulse of short width with varying amplitude
– Flattop - sample and hold, like natural but with single amplitude value
• The process is referred to as pulse amplitude modulation PAM and the outcome is a
signal with analog (non integer) values
•

According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest
frequency contained in the signal.
Quantization:
• Sampling results in a series of pulses of varying amplitude values ranging between two
limits: a min and a max.
• The amplitude values are infinite between the two limits.
• We need to map the infinite amplitude values onto a finite set of known values.
• This is achieved by dividing the distance between min and max into L zones, each of
height ∆.
∆ = (max - min)/L
Quantization Levels:
• The midpoint of each zone is assigned a value from 0 to L-1 (resulting in L values)
• Each sample falling in a zone is then approximated to the value of the midpoint.

Quantization Error:
• When a signal is quantized, we introduce an error - the coded signal is an approximation
of the actual amplitude value.
• The difference between actual and coded value (midpoint) is referred to as the
quantization error.
• The more zones, the smaller ∆ which results in smaller errors.
• BUT, the more zones the more bits required to encode the samples -> higher bit rate
Quantization Error and SNQR:
• Signals with lower amplitude values will suffer more from quantization error as the error
range: ∆/2, is fixed for all signal levels.
• Non linear quantization is used to alleviate this problem. Goal is to keep SNQR fixed for
all sample values.
• Two approaches:
• The quantization levels follow a logarithmic curve. Smaller ∆’s at lower
amplitudes and larger ∆’s at higher amplitudes.
• Companding: The sample values are compressed at the sender into logarithmic
zones, and then expanded at the receiver. The zones are fixed in height.
Bit rate and bandwidth requirements of PCM:
• The bit rate of a PCM signal can be calculated form the number of bits per sample x the
sampling rate Bit rate = nb x fs
• The bandwidth required to transmit this signal depends on the type of line encoding used.
Refer to previous section for discussion and formulas.
• A digitized signal will always need more bandwidth than the original analog signal. Price
we pay for robustness and other features of digital transmission.

PCM Decoder:
• To recover an analog signal from a digitized signal we follow the following steps:
• We use a hold circuit that holds the amplitude value of a pulse till the next pulse
arrives.
• We pass this signal through a low pass filter with a cutoff frequency that is equal
to the highest frequency in the pre-sampled signal.
• The higher the value of L, the less distorted a signal is recovered.

Matlab code of PCM:
%********PCM**************************************************
%the uniform quantization of an analog signal using L quantizaton levels%
%****implemented by uniquan.m function of matlab
%(uniquan.m)
function [q_out,Delta,SQNR]=uniquan(sig_in,L)
%usage
% [q_out,Delta ,SQNR]=uniquan(sig_in,L)
% L-number ofuniform quantization levels
% sig_in-input signalvector
% function output:
% q_out-quantized output
% Delta-quantization interval
% SQNR- actual signal to quantization ratio
sig_pmax=max(sig_in); % finding the +ve peak
sig_nmax=min(sig_in); % finding the -ve peak
Delta=(sig_pmax-sig_nmax)/L; % quantization interval
q_level=sig_nmax+Delta/2:Delta:sig_pmax-Delta/2; %define Q-levels
L_sig=length(sig_in); % find signal length
sigp=(sig_in-sig_nmax)/Delta+1/2; % convert int to 1/2 to L+1/2 range
qindex=round(sigp); % round to 1,2,.....L levels
qindex=min(qindex,L); % eliminate L+1 as a rare possibility
q_out=q_level(qindex); % use index vector to generate output
SQNR=20*log10(norm(sig_in)/norm(sig_in-q_out)); % actual SQNR value
end

% sampandquant.m function executes both sampling and uniform quantization

%sampandquant.m
function [s_out,sq_out,sqh_out,Delta,SQNR]=sampandquant(sig_in,L,td,ts)
% usage
% [s_out,sq_out,sqh_out,Delta,SQNR]=sampandquant(sig_in,L,td,ts)
% L-no. of uniform quantization levels
% sig_in-input signal vector
% td-original signal sampling period of sig_in
% ts- new sampling period
% NOTE: td*fs must be +ve integef
% function outputs:

% s_out-sampled output
% sq_out-sample and quantized output
% sqh_out-sample, quantized and hold output
% Delta- quantization interval
% SQNR-actual signal to quantization ratio
if rem(ts/td,1)==0
nfac=round(ts/td);
p_zoh=ones(1,nfac);
s_out=downsample(sig_in,nfac);
[sq_out,Delta,SQNR]=uniquan(s_out,L);
s_out=upsample(s_out,nfac);
sqh_out=upsample(sq_out,nfac);
else
warning('Error! ts/td is not an integer!');
s_out=[];
sq_out=[];
sqh_out=[];
Delta=[];
SQNR=[];
end
end

%********generation of PCM *****************************%
clc;
clear;
clf;
td=0.002; % original sampling rate rate 500 hz
t=[0:td:1.]; %time interval of 1 sec
xsig=sin(2*pi*t)-sin(6*pi*t); %n1hz +3 hz sinusoidals
Lsig=length(xsig);
Lfft=2^ceil(log2(Lsig)+1);
Xsig=fftshift(fft(xsig,Lfft));
Fmax=1/(2*td);
Faxis=linspace(-Fmax,Fmax,Lfft);
ts=0.02; % new sampling rate =50 hz
Nfact=ts/td;
% send the signal through a 16-level uniform quantiser
[s_out,sq_out,sqh_out1,Delta,SQRN]=sampandquant(xsig,16,td,ts);
% obtaind the signal which is
% - sampled,quantiser,and zero-order hold signal sqh_out
% plot the original signal and PCM signal in time domain figrue(1);
figure(1);
subplot(211);
sfig1=plot(t,xsig,'k',t,sqh_out1(1:Lsig),'b');
set(sfig1,'Linewidth',2);
title('Signal {it g}({{it t}) and its 16 level PCM signal')
xlabel('time(sec.)');

% send the signal through a 16-level unifrom quantiser
[s_out,sq_out,sqh_out2,Delta,SQNR]=sampandquant(xsig,4,td,ts);
% obtained the PCM signal which is
% - sampled,quantiser,and zero_order hold signal sqh_out
% plot the original signal and the PCM signal in time domain
subplot(212);
sfig2=plot(t,xsig,'k',t,sqh_out2(1:Lsig),'b');
title('Signal {it g}({it t}) and its 4 level PCM signal')
Lfft=2^ceil(log2(Lsig)+1);
Fmax=1/(2*td);
Faxis=linspace(-Fmax,Fmax,Lfft);
SQH1=fftshift(fft(sqh_out1,Lfft));

SQH2=fftshift(fft(sqh_out2,Lfft));
% Now use LPF to filter the two PCM signal
BW=10; %Bandwidth is no larger than 10Hz.
H_lpf=zeros(1,Lfft);H_lpf(Lfft/2-BW:Lfft/2+BW-1)=1; %ideal LPF
S1_recv=SQH1.*H_lpf;
s_recv1=real(ifft(fftshift(S1_recv)));
s_recv1=s_recv1(1:Lsig);
S2_recv=SQH2.*H_lpf;
s_recv2=real(ifft(fftshift(S2_recv)));
s_recv2=s_recv2(1:Lsig);
% plot the filtered signal against the original signal
figure(2);
subplot(211);
sfig3=plot(t,xsig,'b-',t,s_recv1,'b-.');
legend('original','recovered')
title('signal{it g}({it t}) and filtered 16-level PCM signal')
subplot(212);
sfig4=plot(t,xsig,'b-',t,s_recv2(1:Lsig),'b');
legend('original','recovered')
title('signal{it g}({it t}) and filtered 4-level PCM signal')

Results:
Signal {it g}({{it t}) and its 16 level PCM signal
2

1

0

-1

-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time(sec.)
Signal g( t) and its 4 level PCM signal
2

1

0

-1

-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time(sec.)

signal g(it t) and filtered 16-level PCM signal
2
original
1 recovered

0

-1

-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time(sec.)
signal g(it t) and filtered 4-level PCM signal
2
original
1 recovered

0

-1

-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time(sec.)

PRACTICAL NO 7
OBJECT
Implementation of delta modulation and demodulation and observe effect of slope Overload using
matlab/simulink
THEORY
Delta Modulation:
Delta modulation (DM or Δ-modulation) is an analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog
signal conversion technique used for transmission of voice information where quality is not of
primary importance. DM is the simplest form of differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM) where
the difference between successive samples is encoded into n-bit data streams. In delta
modulation, the transmitted data is reduced to a 1-bit data stream.
• This scheme sends only the difference between pulses, if the pulse at time tn+1 is higher
in amplitude value than the pulse at time t n, then a single bit, say a “1”, is used to indicate
the positive value.
• If the pulse is lower in value, resulting in a negative value, a “0” is used.
• This scheme works well for small changes in signal values between samples.
• If changes in amplitude are large, this will result in large errors.

Figure 1.1 the process of delta modulation

Figure 1.2 Delta modulation components

Figure 1.3 Delta demodulation components

Mtalb Code:

% *** Function for Delta Modulation***********
% (deltamod.m)
function s_DMout=deltamod(sig_in,Delta,td,ts)
% usage
% s_DMout=deltamod(xsig,Delta,td,ts)
% Delta-step size
% sig_in-input signal vector
% td-original signal sampling period of sig_in
% NOTE: td*fs must be a positive integer;
% S_DMout -DM sampled output
% ts-new sampling period
if (rem(ts/td,1)==0)
nfac=round(ts/td);
p_zoh=ones(1,nfac);
s_down=downsample(sig_in,nfac);
Num_it=length(s_down);
s_DMout(1)=Delta/2;
for k=2:Num_it
xvar=s_DMout(k-1);
s_DMout(k)=xvar+Delta*sign(s_down(k-1)-xvar);
end
s_DMout=kron(s_DMout,p_zoh);
else
warning('Error! ts/t is not an integer!');
s_DMout=[];
end
end

%********Delta Modulation **********************************%
% togenerate DM signals with different step sizes,
% Delta1=0.2,Delta2=Delta1,Delta3=Delta4
clc;
clear;
clf;
td=0.002; % original sampling rate rate 500 hz
t=[0:td:1.]; % time interval of 1 sec
xsig=sin(2*pi*t)-sin(6*pi*t); % 1hz +3 hz sinusoidals
Lsig=length(xsig);
ts=0.02; % new sampling rate =50 hz
Nfact=ts/td;
% send the signal through a 16-level uniform quantiser
Delta1=0.2;
s_DMout1=deltamod(xsig,Delta1,td,ts);
% obtaind the DM signal
% plot the original signal and DM signal in time domain figrue(1);
figure(1);
subplot(311);
sfig1=plot(t,xsig,'k',t,s_DMout1(1:Lsig),'b');
title('Signal {it g}({{it t}) and its DM signal')
axis([0 1 -2.2 2.2]);
% Apply DM again by doubling the Delta
Delta2=2*Delta1;
subplot(312);

title('Signal {it g}({it t}) and DM signal with doubled stepsize')
axis([0 1 -2.2 2.2]);
%***********
Delta3=2*Delta2;
subplot(313);
title('Signal {it g}({it t}) and DM signal with quadrupled stepsize')
axis([0 1 -2.2 2.2]);

Results:

S ignal {it g}({{it t}) and its D M s ignal
2

1

0

-1

-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
tim e(s ec .)
S ignal g( t) and D M s ignal w ith doubled s teps iz e
2

1

0

-1

-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
tim e(s ec .)
S ignal g( t) and D M s ignal w ith quadrupled s teps iz e
2

1

0

-1

-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
tim e(s ec .)

PRACTICAL NO 8
OBJECT
Implementation of pulse data coding techniques for various formats using matlab/simulink.

THEORY
Data Encoding Methods:
We can roughly divide line coding schemes into five broad categories, as shown in figure: 2.1.

Figure 2.1 line coding scheme

Non-Return to Zero (NRZ):

Figure 2.2 NRZ
• It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit
• NRZ is the simplest representation of digital signals
• One bit of data is transmitted per clock cycle
• Bit values of 1and 0 are represented by high and low voltage signals, respectively

NRZ-L (NRZ-Level), NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert):

Figure 2.3 NRZ-L (NRZ-Level), NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert)
• In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit.

• In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines the value of the bit
Polar RZ: Return-to-Zero scheme:

Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes:

• In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit
is used for synchronization
• The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and differential Manchester is 2 times that of
NRZ

Bipolar Schemes: sometimes called multilevel binary
• Three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero
• Two variations of bipolar encoding
o AMI (alternate mark inversion)
 0: neutral zero voltage
 1: alternating positive and negative voltages
o Pseudoternary
 1: neutral zero voltage
 0: alternating positive and negative voltages

• AMI (alternate mark inversion)
– The work mark comes from telegraphy and means 1.
– AMI means alternate 1 inversion
– The neutral zero voltage represents binary 0.
– Binary 1s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
• Pesudotenary :

– Same as AMI, but 1 bit is encoded as a zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as
alternating positive and negative voltages.

Multilevel Schemes:
• The desire to increase the data speed or decrease the required bandwidth has resulted in
the creation of many schemes.
• The goal is to increase the number of bits per baud by encoding a pattern of m data
elements into a pattern of n signal elements.
• Different types of signal elements can be allowing different signal levels.
• If we have L different levels, then we can produce Ln combinations of signal patterns.
• The data element and signal element relation is
• mBnL coding, where m is the length of the binary pattern, B means binary data, n is the
length of the signal pattern, and L is the number of levels in the signaling.
• B (binary, L=2), T (tenary, L=3), and Q (quaternary, L=4).
• In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data elements is encoded as a pattern of n signal
elements in which 2m ≤ Ln
2B1Q (two binary, one quaternary)
– m=2, n=1, and L=4
– The signal rate (baud rate)
2B1Q is used in DSL (digital subscriber line) technology to provide a high-speed connection
to the Internet by using subscriber telephone lines

8B6T:
• Eight binary, six ternary (8B6T)

– This code is used with 100BASE-4T cable.
– Encode a pattern of 8 bits as a pattern of 6 signal elements, where the signal has
three levels (ternary).
– 28=256 different data patterns and 36=478 different signal patterns. (The mapping
is shown in Appendix D.)
– There are 478-256=222 redundant signal elements that provide synchronization
and error detection.
– Part of the redundancy is also used to provide DC (direct-current) balance.
• + (positive signal), - (negative signal), and 0 (lack of signal) notation.
• To make whole stream DC-balanced, the sender keeps track of the weight

4D-PAM5 :
• Four-dimensional five-level pulse amplitude modulation (4D-PAM5)
– 4D means that data is sent over four wires at the same time.
– It uses five voltage levels, such as -2, -1, 0, 1, and 2.
– The level 0 is used only for forward error detection.
– If we assume that the code is just one-dimensional, the four levels create
something similar to 8B4Q.
– The worst signal rate for this imaginary one-dimensional version is Nx4/8, or N/2.
– 4D-PAM5 sends data over four channels (four wires). This means the signal rate
can be reduced to N/8.
– All 8 bits can be fed into a wire simultaneously and sent by using one signal
element.
– Gigabit Ethernet use this technique to send 1-Gbps data over four copper cables
that can handle 1Gbps/8 = 125Mbaud
–

Multiline Transmission: MLT-3:
• The multiline transmission, three level (MLT-3)
• Three levels (+V, 0, and –V) and three transition rules to move the levels
– If the next bit is 0, there is no transition
– If the next bit is 1 and the current level is not 0, the next level is 0.

– If the next bit is 1 and the current level is 0, the next level is the opposite of the
last nonzero level.
• Why do we need to use MLT-3?
– The signal rate for MLT-3 is one-fourth the bit rate (N/4).
– This makes MLT-3 a suitable choice when we need to send 100 Mbps on a
copper wire that cannot support more than 32 MHz (frequencies above this level
create electromagnetic emission).
–

Summary of line coding schemes:

Matlab code:
function [U P B M S]=nrz(a)
% 'a' is input data sequence, % U = Unipolar, P=Polar, B=Bipolar, M=Mark and S=Space
%Wave formatting, %Unipolar
U=a;
n= length(a);
%POLAR

P=a;
for k=1:n;
if a(k)==0
P(k)=-1;
end
end
%Bipolar
B=a;
f = -1;
for k=1:n;
if B(k)==1;
if f==-1;
B(k)=1;
f=1;
else
B(k)=-1;
f=-1;
end
end
end

%Mark
M(1)=1;
for k=1:n;
M(k+1)=xor(M(k), a(k));
end

%Space
S(1)=1;
for k=1:n
S(k+1)=not(xor(S(k), a(k)));
end
%Plotting Waves
subplot(5, 1, 1); stairs(U)
axis([1 n+2 -2 2])
title('Unipolar NRZ')
grid on
subplot(5, 1, 2); stairs(P)
axis([1 n+2 -2 2])
title('Polar NRZ')
grid on
subplot(5, 1, 3); stairs(B)
axis([1 n+2 -2 2])
title('Bipolar NRZ')
grid on
subplot(5, 1, 4); stairs(M)
axis([1 n+2 -2 2])
title('NRZ-Mark')
grid on
subplot(5, 1, 5); stairs(S)
axis([1 n+2 -2 2])
title('NRZ-Space')
grid on

Input
a=[1 0 0 1 1]

a=

1 0 0 1 1

[U P B M S]=nrz(a)

Output wavform

Unipolar NRZ
2
0
-2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Polar NRZ
2
0
-2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bipolar NRZ
2
0
-2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
NRZ-Mark
2
0
-2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
NRZ-Space
2
0
-2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

RACTICAL NO 9
OBJECT
Implementation of Data decoding techniques for various formats using matlab/simulink
Matlab Code:
function [Ur Pr Br Mr Sr]=nrzRx(U,P,B,M,S)
% 'a' is input data sequence
% U = Unipolar, P=Polar, B=Bipolar, M=Mark and S=Space
%Wave formatting
%Unipolar
Ur=U;
n= length(P);
%POLAR
Pr=P;
l=find(Pr<0);
Pr(l)=0

%Bipolar
n= length(B);
Br=B;
l=find(Br<0);
Br(l)=1;

%Mark
n= length(M);
for k=1:n-1;
Mr(k)=xor(M(k), M(k+1));
end

%Space
n= length(S);
S(1)=1;
for k=1:n-1
Sr(k)=not(xor(S(k), S(k+1)));
end
%Plotting Waves
n= length(Ur);
subplot(5, 1, 1); stairs(Ur)
axis([1 n+2 -2 2])
title('Unipolar NRZ Decoded')
grid on
n= length(P);
subplot(5, 1, 2); stairs(P)
axis([1 n+2 -2 2])
title('Polar NRZ Decoded')
grid on
n= length(Br);
subplot(5, 1, 3); stairs(B)
axis([1 n+2 -2 2])
title('Bipolar NRZ Decoded')
grid on
n= length(Mr);
subplot(5, 1, 4); stairs(M)
axis([1 n+2 -2 2])
title('NRZ-Mark Decoded')
grid on
n= length(Sr);
subplot(5, 1, 5); stairs(S)
axis([1 n+2 -2 2])
title('NRZ-Space Decoded')

grid on
*******************************end***********************************

Input
U =

1 0 0 1 1

P =

1 -1 -1 1 1

B =

1 0 0 -1 1

M =

1 0 0 0 1 0

S =

1 1 0 1 1 1

Call [Ur Pr Br Mr Sr]=nrzRx(U,P,B,M,S)

Output
Pr =

1 0 0 1 1

Ur =

1 0 0 1 1

Pr =

1 0 0 1 1

Br =

1 0 0 1 1

Mr =

1 0 0 1 1

Sr =

1 0 0 1 1

PRACTICAL NO 10
OBJECT
Implementation of amplitude shift keying modulator and demodulator using matlab/simulink.
THEORY
ASK (amplitude shift keying) modulator:
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) is a form of modulation that represents digital data as variations in
the amplitude of a carrier wave.
The amplitude of an analog carrier signal varies in accordance with the bit stream (modulating
signal), keeping frequency and phase constant. The level of amplitude can be used to
represent binary logic 0s and 1s. We can think of a carrier signal as an ON or OFF switch. In the
modulated signal, logic 0 is represented by the absence of a carrier, thus giving OFF/ON keying
operation and hence the name given
• ASK is implemented by changing the amplitude of a carrier signal to reflect amplitude
levels in the digital signal.
• For example: a digital “1” could not affect the signal, whereas a digital “0” would, by
making it zero.
• The line encoding will determine the values of the analog waveform to reflect the digital
data being carried.

Fig. 4.1 Ask modulator

Fig. 4.1 Ask signal

Matlab Code :
% program for amplitude shift keying %
clc;
clear all;
close all;
s= [1 0 1 0];
f1=20;
a=length (s);
for i=1:a
f=f1*s (1,i);
for t=(i-1)*100+1:i*100
x(t)=sin(2*pi*f*t/1000);
end
end
plot(x);
xlabel('time in secs');
ylabel('amplitude in volts');
title('ASK')
grid on;

Results:
A K
S
1

0.8
m litu einv lts

0.6
o

0.4

0.2
d

0
a p

- .2
0

- .4
0

- .6
0

- .8
0

-1
0 50 10
0 10
5 20
0 20
5 30
0 30
5 40
0
tim ins c
e es

PRACTICAL NO 11
OBJECT
Implementation of frequency shift keying modulator and demodulator using matlab/simulink.

THEORY
FSK (frequency shift keying) modulator:
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is
transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave. The simplest FSK
is binary FSK (BFSK). BFSK literally implies using a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary
(0s and 1s) information.

Applications:
Most early telephone-line modems used audio frequency-shift keying to send and receive data,
up to rates of about 300 bits per second.

Matlab Code:
%*********FSK**************%
clc;
clear all;
close all;
s= [1 0 1 0];
f1=10;
f2=50;
a=length (s);
for i=1:a
if s(1,i)==1
freq=f1*s(1,i);
for t= (i-1)*100+1:i*100
x(t)= sin(2*pi*freq*t/1000);
end
elseif s(1,i)==0
b=(2*s(1,i))+1;
freq=f2*b;
for t=(i-1)*100+1:i*100
x(t)= sin(2*pi*freq*t/1000);
end
end
end
plot(x);
xlabel('title in secs');
ylabel('amplitude in volts')
title ('FSK')
grid on;

Results

FSK
1

0.8

0.6

0.4
amplitude in volts

0.2

0

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
title in secs

PRACTICAL NO 12
OBJECT
Implementation of phase shift keying modulator and demodulator using matlab/simulink

THEORY
PSK (phase shift keying) modulator:
Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing, or
modulating, the phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave).
Any digital modulation scheme uses a finite number of distinct signals to represent digital data.
PSK uses a finite number of phases, each assigned a unique pattern of binary digits. Usually,
each phase encodes an equal number of bits. Each pattern of bits forms the symbol that is
represented by the particular phase. The demodulator, which is designed specifically for the
symbol-set used by the modulator, determines the phase of the received signal and maps it back
to the symbol it represents, thus recovering the original data. This requires the receiver to be able
to compare the phase of the received signal to a reference signal — such a system is termed
coherent (and referred to as CPSK).
Alternatively, instead of using the bit patterns to set the phase of the wave, it can instead be used
to change it by a specified amount. The demodulator then determines the changes in the phase
of the received signal rather than the phase itself. Since this scheme depends on the difference
between successive phases, it is termed differential phase-shift keying (DPSK). DPSK can be
significantly simpler to implement than ordinary PSK since there is no need for the demodulator to
have a copy of the reference signal to determine the exact phase of the received signal (it is a
non-coherent scheme). In exchange, it produces more erroneous demodulations. The exact
requirements of the particular scenario under consideration determine which scheme is used.

Matlab Code:
Initializing Variables:
The first step is to initialize variables for number of samples per symbol, number of symbols to
simulate, alphabet size (M) and the signal to noise ratio. The last line seeds the random number
generators.

nSamp = 8;
numSymb = 100;
M = 4;
SNR = 14;
seed = [12345 54321];
rand('state', seed(1));
randn('state', seed(2));

Generating Random Information Symbols
Next, use RANDSRC to generate random information symbols from 0 to M-1. Since the %
simulation is of QPSK, the symbols are 0 through 3. The first 10 data points are plotted.

numPlot = 10;

rand('state', seed(1));
msg_orig = randsrc(numSymb, 1, 0:M-1);
stem(0:numPlot-1, msg_orig(1:numPlot), 'bx');
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');

Phase Modulating the Data
Use MODEM.PSKMOD object to phase modulate the data and RECTPULSE to upsample to a
sampling rate 8 times the carrier frequency. Use SCATTERPLOT to see the signal constellation.

grayencod = bitxor(0:M-1, floor((0:M-1)/2));
msg_gr_orig = grayencod(msg_orig+1);
msg_tx = modulate(modem.pskmod(M), msg_gr_orig);
msg_tx = rectpulse(msg_tx,nSamp);
h1 = scatterplot(msg_tx);

Creating the Noisy Signal
Then use AWGN to add noise to the transmitted signal to create the noisy signal at the receiver.
Use the 'measured' option to add noise that is 14 dB below the average signal power (SNR = 14
dB). Plot the constellation of the received signal.

randn('state', seed(2));
msg_rx = awgn(msg_tx, SNR, 'measured', [], 'dB');
h2 = scatterplot(msg_rx);

Recovering Information from the Transmitted Signal
Use INTDUMP to downsample to the original information rate. Then use MODEM.PSKDEMOD
object to demodulate the signal, and detect the transmitted symbols. The detected symbols are
plotted in red stems with circles and the transmitted symbols are plotted in blue stems with x's.
The blue stems of the transmitted signal are shadowed by the red stems of the received signal.
Therefore, comparing the blue x's with the red circles indicates that the received signal is identical
to the transmitted signal.

close(h1(ishandle(h1)), h2(ishandle(h2)));
msg_rx_down = intdump(msg_rx,nSamp);
msg_gr_demod = demodulate(modem.pskdemod(M), msg_rx_down);
[dummy graydecod] = sort(grayencod); graydecod = graydecod - 1;
msg_demod = graydecod(msg_gr_demod+1)';
stem(0:numPlot-1, msg_orig(1:numPlot), 'bx');
hold on;
stem(0:numPlot-1, msg_demod(1:numPlot), 'ro');
hold off;
axis([ 0 numPlot -0.2 3.2]);
xlabel('Time');
ylabel('Amplitude');

PRACTICAL NO 13
OBJECT
Study of microwave components and instruments
THEORY
Microwave Components:
• Connecting Devices:
– Waveguide
• Rectangular
• Circular
– Microstrip line
– Strip line
• Junctions:
– E plane
– H plane
– EH plane or magic tee (hybride line)
– Hybride ring
• Microwave Source:
– Multicavity klystron
– Reflex klystron
– Magnetron
– Travelling Wave Tube (TWT)
– Crossed Field Amplifier (CFA)
– Backward oscillator
• Semiconductor Source:
– Gunn Diode
– IMPATT, IMPATT, TRAPATT
– Tunnel Diode
• Microwave Amplifier:
– Multicavity klystron
– Travelling Wave Tube (TWT)
– Gunn Diode
– Parametric Amplifier
• Switches:
– PIN Diode

Waveguides:
A waveguide is a structure which guides waves, such as electromagnetic waves or sound waves.
There are different types of waveguide for each type of wave. The original and most
common meaning is a hollow conductive metal pipe used to carry high frequency radio waves,
particularly microwaves.
Waveguides differ in their geometry which can confine energy in one dimension such as in
slab waveguides or two dimensions as in fiber or channel waveguides. In addition, different
waveguides are needed to guide different frequencies: an optical
fiber guiding light (high frequency) will not guide microwaves (which have a much lower
frequency). As a rule of thumb, the width of a waveguide needs to be of the same order of
magnitude as the wavelength of the guided wave.

Principal of operation:
Waves in open space propagate in all directions, as spherical waves. In this way they lose their
power proportionally to the square of the distance; that is, at a distance R from the source, the
power is the source power divided by R2. The waveguide confines the wave to propagation in one
dimension, so that (under ideal conditions) the wave loses no power while propagating.
Waves are confined inside the waveguide due to total reflection from the waveguide wall, so that
the propagation inside the waveguide can be described approximately as a "zigzag" between the
walls. This description is exact for electromagnetic waves in a rectangular or circular hollow metal
tube.

Rectangular Waveguide:

It consists of a rectangular hollow metallic conductor.
The electromagnetic waves in (metal-pipe) waveguide may be imagined as travelling down the
guide in a zig-zag path, being repeatedly reflected between opposite walls of the guide.

• Need to find the fields components of the em wave inside the waveguide
– Ez Hz Ex Hx Ey Hy
• We’ll find that waveguides don’t support TEM waves
Modes of propagation:
• TEM (Ez=Hz=0) can’t propagate.
• TE (Ez=0) transverse electric
– In TE mode, the electric lines of flux are perpendicular to the axis of the
waveguide
– TM (Hz=0) transverse magnetic, Ez exists
– In TM mode, the magnetic lines of flux are perpendicular to the axis of the
waveguide.
– HE hybrid modes in which all components exists
The cutoff frequency occurs when:
2 2
 mπ   nπ 
When ω c µε =  then γ = α + jβ = 0
2
 + 
 a   b 
2 2
1 1  mπ   nπ 
or f c =   + 
2π µε  a   b 
Dominant mode- T10

Circular waveguide:
It consists of a circular hollow metallic conductor.
For same cutoff frequency the cylindrical waveguide longer then rectangular waveguide in cross-
sectional area so it is more bulky
Dominant mode- T11

Microstrip Line:
Microstrip is a type of electrical transmission line which can be fabricated using printed circuit
board [PCB] technology, and is used to convey microwave-frequency signals. It consists of a
conducting strip separated from a ground plane by a dielectric layer known as the substrate.
Microwave components such as antennas, couplers, filters, power dividers etc. can be formed
from microstrip, the entire device existing as the pattern of metallization on the substrate.
Microstrip is thus much less expensive than traditional waveguide technology, as well as being far
lighter and more compact.

Cross-section of microstrip geometry, Conductor (A) is separated from ground
plane (D) by dielectric substrate (C). Upper dielectric (B) is typically air.

The disadvantages of microstrip compared with waveguide are the generally lower power
handling capacity, and higher losses. Also, unlike waveguide, microstrip is not enclosed, and is
therefore susceptible to cross-talk and unintentional radiation
It is behave as a parallel wire.

Strip line:
A stripline circuit uses a flat strip of metal which is sandwiched between two parallel ground
planes, The insulating material of the substrate forms a dielectric. The width of the strip, the
thickness of the substrate and the relative permittivity of the substrate determine
the characteristic impedance of the strip which is a transmission line. As shown in the diagram,
the central conductor need not be equally spaced between the ground planes. In the general
case, the dielectric material may be different above and below the central conductor
To prevent the propagation of unwanted modes, the two ground planes must be shorted together.
This is commonly achieved by a row of vias running parallel to the strip on each side.
Like coaxial cable, strip line is non-dispersive, and has no cut off frequency. Good isolation
between adjacent traces can be achieved more easily than with microstrip.

Cross-section diagram of strip line geometry. Central conductor (A) is sandwiched between
ground planes (B and D). Structure is supported by dielectric (C).

Waveguide Junction:
E-type waveguide junction:
It is called an E-type T junction because the junction arm, i.e. the top of the "T" extends from the
main waveguide in the same direction as the E field. It is characterized by the fact that the
outputs of this form of waveguide junction are 180° out of phase with each other.

Waveguide E-type junction
The basic construction of the waveguide junction shows the three port waveguide device.
Although it may be assumed that the input is the single port and the two outputs are those on the
top section of the "T", actually any port can be used as the input, the other two being outputs.

To see how the waveguide junction operates, and how the 180° phase shift occurs, it is
necessary to look at the electric field. The magnetic field is omitted from the diagram for
simplicity.

Waveguide E-type junction E fields
It can be seen from the electric field that when it approaches the T junction itself, the electric field
lines become distorted and bend. They split so that the "positive" end of the line remains with the
top side of the right hand section in the diagram, but the "negative" end of the field lines remain
with the top side of the left hand section. In this way the signals appearing at either section of the
"T" are out of phase.
These phase relationships are preserved if signals enter from either of the other ports.

H-type waveguide junction:
This type of waveguide junction is called an H-type T junction because the long axis of the main
top of the "T" arm is parallel to the plane of the magnetic lines of force in the waveguide. It is
characterized by the fact that the two outputs from the top of the "T" section in the waveguide are
in phase with each other.

Waveguide H-type junction
To see how the waveguide junction operates, the diagram below shows the electric field lines.
Like the previous diagram, only the electric field lines are shown. The electric field lines are
shown using the traditional notation - a cross indicates a line coming out of the screen, whereas a
dot indicates an electric field line going into the screen.

Waveguide H-type junction electric fields
It can be seen from the diagram that the signals at all ports are in phase. Although it is easiest to
consider signals entering from the lower section of the "T", any port can actually be used - the
phase relationships are preserved whatever entry port is ised.

Magic T hybrid waveguide junction:
The magic-T is a combination of the H-type and E-type T junctions. The most common
application of this type of junction is as the mixer section for microwave radar receivers.

Magic T waveguide junction
The diagram above depicts a simplified version of the Magic T waveguide junction with its four
ports.
To look at the operation of the Magic T waveguide junction, take the example of whan a signal is
applied into the "E plane" arm. It will divide into two out of phase components as it passes into the
leg consisting of the "a" and "b" arms. However no signal will enter the "E plane" arm as a result
of the fact that a zero potential exists there - this occurs because of the conditions needed to
create the signals in the "a" and "b" arms. In this way, when a signal is applied to the H plane
arm, no signal appears at the "E plane" arm and the two signals appearing at the "a" and "b" arms
are 180° out of phase with each other.

Magic T waveguide junction signal directions
When a signal enters the "a" or "b" arm of the magic t waveguide junction, then a signal appears
at the E and H plane ports but not at the other "b" or "a" arm as shown.
One of the disadvantages of the Magic-T waveguide junction are that reflections arise from the
impedance mismatches that naturally occur within it. These reflections not only give rise to power
loss, but at the voltage peak points they can give rise to arcing when sued with high power
transmitters. The reflections can be reduced by using matching techniques. Normally posts or
screws are used within the E-plane and H-plane ports. While these solutions improve the
impedance matches and hence the reflections, they still reduce the power handling capacity.
Hybrid ring waveguide junction:
This form of waveguide junction overcomes the power limitation of the magic-T waveguide
junction.
A hybrid ring waveguide junction is a further development of the magic T. It is constructed from a
circular ring of rectangular waveguide - a bit like an annulus. The ports are then joined to the
annulus at the required points. Again, if signal enters one port, it does not appear at allt he others.

The hybrid ring is used primarily in high-power radar and communications systems where it acts
as a duplexer - allowing the same antenna to be used for transmit and receive functions.
During the transmit period, the hybrid ring waveguide junction couples microwave energy from
the transmitter to the antenna while blocking energy from the receiver input. Then as the receive
cycle starts, the hybrid ring waveguide junction couples energy from the antenna to the receiver.
During this period it prevents energy from reaching the transmitter.

Multicavity klystron:
Gain of about 10-20 dB are typical with two cavity tubes. A higher overall gain can be achieved by
connecting several two cavity tubes in cascade, feeding the output of each of the tubes to the
input of the succeeding one.
With four cavities, power gains of around 50 dB cab be easily achieved. The cavities are tuned
the same frequency.

Reflex klystron:

In the reflex klystron (also known as a 'Sutton' klystron after its inventor), the electron beam
passes through a single resonant cavity. The electrons are fired into one end of the tube by
an electron gun. After passing through the resonant cavity they are reflected by a negatively
charged reflector electrode for another pass through the cavity, where they are then collected.
The electron beam is velocity modulated when it first passes through the cavity. The formation of
electron bunches takes place in the drift space between the reflector and the cavity.
Thevoltage on the reflector must be adjusted so that the bunching is at a maximum as the
electron beam re-enters the resonant cavity, thus ensuring a maximum of energy is transferred
from the electron beam to the RFoscillations in the cavity. The voltage should always be switched
on before providing the input to the reflex klystron as the whole function of the reflex klystron
would be destroyed if the supply is provided after the input. The reflector voltage may be varied
slightly from the optimum value, which results in some loss of output power, but also in a variation
in frequency. This effect is used to good advantage for automatic frequency control in receivers,
and in frequency modulation for transmitters. The level of modulation applied for transmission is
small enough that the power output essentially remains constant. At regions far from the optimum
voltage, no oscillations are obtained at all. This tube is called a reflex klystron because it repels
the input supply or performs the opposite function of a klystron.

Magnetron:

A cross-sectional diagram of a resonant cavity magnetron. Magnetic lines of force are parallel to
the geometric axis of this structure

All cavity magnetrons consist of a hot cathode with a high (continuous or pulsed) negative
potential by a high-voltage, direct-current power supply. The cathode is built into the center of an
evacuated, lobed, circular chamber. A magnetic field parallel to the filament is imposed by a
permanent magnet. The magnetic field causes the electrons, attracted to the (relatively) positive
outer part of the chamber, to spiral outward in a circular path rather than moving directly to this a
node. Spaced around the rim of the chamber are cylindrical cavities. The cavities are open along
their length and connect the common cavity space. As electrons sweep past these openings, they
induce a resonant, high-frequency radio field in the cavity, which in turn causes the electrons to
bunch into groups. A portion of this field is extracted with a short antenna that is connected to a
waveguide (a metal tube usually of rectangular cross section). The waveguide directs the
extracted RF energy to the load, which may be a cooking chamber in a microwave oven or a
high-gain antenna in the case of radar.

Travelling Wave Tube (TWT):
A traveling-wave tube (TWT) is an electronic device used to amplify radio frequency signals to
high power, usually in an electronic assembly known as a traveling-wave tube amplifier (TWTA).

Cutaway view of a TWT (1) Electron gun; (2) RF input; (3) Magnets; (4) Attenuator; (5) Helix coil;
(6) RF output; (7) Vacuum tube; (8) Collector.

Crossed Field Amplifier (CFA):
A crossed-field amplifier (CFA) is a specialized vacuum tube, first introduced in the mid-1950s
and frequently used as a microwave amplifier in very-high-power transmitters. A CFA has
lower gain and bandwidth than other microwave amplifier tubes (such as klystrons or traveling-
wave tubes); but it is more efficient and capable of much higher output power. Peak output
powers of many megawatts and average power levels of tens of kilowatts can be achieved, with
efficiency ratings in excess of 70 percent.

Backward oscillator:
A backward wave oscillator (BWO), also called carcinotron (a trade name for tubes
manufactured by CSF, now Thales) or backward wave tube, is a vacuum tubethat is used to
generate microwaves up to the terahertz range. It belongs to the traveling-wave tube family. It is
an oscillator with a wide electronic tuning range.
An electron gun generates an electron beam that is interacting with a slow-wave structure. It
sustains the oscillations by propagating a traveling wave backwards against the beam. The
generated electromagnetic wave power has its group velocity directed oppositely to the direction
of motion of the electrons. The output power is coupled out near the electron gun.

It has two main subtypes, the M-type, the most powerful, (M-BWO) and the O-type (O-BWO).
The O-type delivers typically power in the range of 1 mW at 1000 GHz to 50 mW at 200 GHz.
Carcinotrons are used as powerful and stable microwave sources. Due to the good
quality wavefront they produce, they find use as illuminators in terahertz imaging.

Gunn Diode:
A Gunn diode, also known as a transferred electron device (TED), is a form of diode used in
high-frequency electronics. It is somewhat unusual in that it consists only of N-
doped semiconductor material, whereas most diodes consist of both P and N-doped regions. In
the Gunn diode, three regions exist: two of them are heavily N-doped on each terminal, with a
thin layer of lightly doped material in between. When a voltage is applied to the device, the
electrical gradient will be largest across the thin middle layer. Conduction will take place as in any
conductive material with current being proportional to the applied voltage. Eventually, at higher
field values, the conductive properties of the middle layer will be altered, increasing its resistivity
and reducing the gradient across it, preventing further conduction and current actually starts to
fall down. In practice, this means a Gunn diode has a region of negative differential resistance.
The negative differential resistance, combined with the timing properties of the intermediate
layer, allows construction of an RF relaxation oscillator simply by applying a suitable direct
current through the device. In effect, the negative differential resistance created by the diode will
negate the real and positive resistance of an actual load and thus create a "zero" resistance
circuit which will sustain oscillations indefinitely. The oscillation frequency is determined partly by
the properties of the thin middle layer, but can be tuned by external factors

IMPATT Diode :
An IMPATT diode (IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit-Time) is a form of high power diode used
in high-frequency electronics and microwave devices. They are typically made with silicon
carbide owing to their high breakdown fields.
They operate at frequencies between about 3 and 100 GHz or more. A main advantage is their
high power capability. These diodes are used in a variety of applications from low
power radar systems to alarms. A major drawback of using IMPATT diodes is the high level
of phase noise they generate. This results from the statistical nature of the avalanche process.
Nevertheless these diodes make excellent microwave generators for many applications.

Tunnel Diode:
A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor diode which is capable of very fast
operation, well into the microwave frequency region, by using quantum mechanical effects.
It was invented in August 1957 by Leo Esaki when he was with Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo, now
known as Sony. In 1973 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics, jointly with Brian Josephson, for
discovering the electron tunneling effect used in these diodes. Robert Noyce independently came
up with the idea of a tunnel diode while working for William Shockley, but was discouraged from
pursuing it.

These diodes have a heavily doped p–n junction only some 10 nm (100 Å) wide. The heavy
doping results in a broken bandgap, where conduction band electron states on the n-side are
more or less aligned with valence band hole states on the p-side.
Tunnel diodes were manufactured by Sony for the first time in 1957 followed by General
Electric and other companies from about 1960, and are still made in low volume today. Tunnel
diodes are usually made from germanium, but can also be made in gallium
arsenide and silicon materials. They can be used as oscillators, amplifiers, frequency

PIN Diode:

A PIN diode is a diode with a wide, lightly doped 'near' intrinsic semiconductor region between
a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor region. The p-type and n-type regions are
typically heavily doped because they are used for ohmic contacts.
The wide intrinsic region is in contrast to an ordinary PN diode. The wide intrinsic region makes
the PIN diode an inferior rectifier (the normal function of a diode), but it makes the PIN diode
suitable for attenuators, fast switches, photodetectors, and high voltage power electronics
applications.

Microwave instruments:
Power Dividers/Combiners, Isolators/Circulators, Attenuators, Couplers, Terminations, Power
Amplifiers, Hybrids, Oscillators, Switches,
Power Dividers/Combiners:
• Strip line Power Dividers and Combiners
• Lumped Element Power Dividers and Combiners
Strip line Power Dividers and Combiners:

2-Way Power Divider and Combiner (Type-N)
2-Way Power Divider and Combiner (SMA) (PS2 Series)
(PS2-NF Series)

(PS3-NF Series)

4 Way Power Divider and Combiner (SMA) (PS4 Series) (PS4-NF Series)

5-Way Power Divider and Combiner (PS5 Series) 6-Way Power Divider and Combiner (PS6 Series)

(PS8-NF Series)

9,11,12-Way Power Divider and Combiner (PS9, PS11, 10-Way Power Divider and Combiner (PS10
and PS12 Series) Series)

16-Way Power Divider and Combiner (PS16 Series) 32-Way Power Divider and Combiner (PS32 Series)

Lumped Element Power Dividers and Combiners:

2-Way Lumped Element Power Divider and 3-Way Lumped Element Power Divider and Combiner (PL3
Combiner (PL2 Series) Series)

4-Way Lumped Element Power Divider and 5,6-Way Lumped Element Power Divider and Combiner
Combiner (PL4 Series) (PL5 and PL6 Series)

8-Way Lumped Element Power Divider and 10,11,12,16-Way Lumped Element Power Divider and
Combiner (PL8 and PM8 Series) Combiner (PL10, PL11, PL12, and PL16 Series)

Connectorized-Broadband - 2-port Isolator and 3- Connectorized-Broadband Double Junction Isolator
port Circulator and Circulator

Connectorized-Narrow Band Isolators and
Circulators Drop-In Isolator and Circulator (DI Series)

Attenuators:

Continuously Variable Attenuator Fixed Coaxial Attenuator

Pin-Diode Attenuator (Linearized Voltage Controlled) Power Coaxial Attenuators

Directional Couplers:

Directional Coupler Broadband Model, SMA (CB
Series) Directional Coupler Octave Model-NF (C-NF Series)

Directional Coupler Octave Model-SMA (C Series) Dual Directional Coupler - Stripline (DC Series)

High Power Directional Coupler (HC Series) High Power Dual Directional Coupler (HD Series)

High Power Dual Directional Coupler (HDL-Series) Lumped Element Directional Coupler (CL Series)

Terminations:

Power Coaxial Terminations
Coaxial Terminations

Amplifiers:

Amplifiers

Hybrids:

180 Degree- 4 Port Hybrid - Lumped Element 180 Degree Hybrid Coupler - SMA

90 Degree Hybrid - 10 Bandwidth - Lumped Element 90 Degree Hybrid - Stripline

Oscillators:

Dielectric Resonator Oscillator (PLDR Series) Free Run Dielectric Resonator Oscillator

Pin Diode Switches:

SP1T Octave and Broadband Pin Diode Switches SP2T Octave and Broadband Pin Diode Switches



Connectors and Adapters:

Connectors (MC Series) Adapters (ADS- ADN-ADT-ADB-ADX-ADZ-ADC- and ADD Series)

Directional Detectors:

Directional Detectors (DD Series)

Filters:

Combline Bandpass Filter Interdigital Bandpass Filter

PRACTICAL NO 14
OBJECT
Measurement of klystron characteristics and Measurement of VSWR
.
THEORY
Measurement of klystron characteristics:
Klystron:
A Klystron is a vacuum tube that can be used either as a generator or as an amplifier of power at
microwave frequencies.

• Two Cavity Klystron:

Two Cavity Klystron Amplifier :
A two cavity klystron amplifier is basically a velocity modulated tube. The electron beam,
accelerated by a positive potential, is constrained to travel through a cylindrical drift tube in a
straight path. While passing through the first cavity, the electron beam is velocity modulated by
the weak RF signal. In the moving frame of the electron beam, the velocity modulation is
equivalent to a plasma oscillation. Plasma oscillations are rapid oscillations of the electron
density in conducting media such as plasmas or metals. So in a quarter of one period of the
plasma frequency, the velocity modulation is converted to density modulation, i.e. bunches of
electrons. As the bunched electrons enter the second chamber they induce standing waves at the
same frequency as the input signal. The signal induced in the second chamber is much stronger
than that in the first.
Performance Characteristics:
– Frequency:250Mhz to 100GHz
– Power: 10kw-500kw (CW), 30 MW (Pulsed)
– Power gain: 15 dB to 70 dB (60 dB nominal )
– Bandwidth: 10 – 60 MHz-generally used in fixed frequency applications.
– Noise Figure: 15-20dB
– Theoretical efficiency: 58% (30-40 %)

Multicavity Klystron:
Gain of about 10-20 dB are typical with two cavity tubes. A higher overall gain can be achieved by
connecting several two cavity tubes in cascade, feeding the output of each of the tubes to the
input of the succeeding one.
With four cavities, power gains of around 50 dB cab be easily achieved. The cavities are tuned
the same frequency.

Two Cavity Klystron Oscillator:

A klystron amplifier can be converted into an oscillator be feeding back a part of the catcher
output in to the buncher in proper phase.

Measurement of VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio):
In telecommunications, standing wave ratio (SWR) is the ratio of the amplitude of a
partial standing wave at an antinode (maximum) to the amplitude at an adjacentnode (minimum),
in an electrical transmission line.
The SWR is usually defined as a voltage ratio called the VSWR, for voltage standing wave ratio.
For example, the VSWR value 1.2:1 denotes a maximum standing wave amplitude that is 1.2
times greater than the minimum standing wave value. It is also possible to define the SWR in
terms of current, resulting in the ISWR, which has the same numerical value. The power standing
wave ratio (PSWR) is defined as the square of the VSWR.
SWR is used as a efficiency measure for transmission lines, electrical cables that conduct radio
frequency signals, used for purposes such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with
their antennas, and distributing cable television signals. A problem with transmission lines is
that impedance mismatches in the cable tend to reflect the radio waves back toward the source
end of the cable, preventing all the power from reaching the destination end. SWR measures the
relative size of these reflections. An ideal transmission line would have an SWR of 1:1, with all
the power reaching the destination and no reflected power. An infinite SWR represents complete
reflection, with all the power reflected back down the cable. SWR meters are available which can
measure the SWR of a transmission line, and checking the SWR is a standard part of installing
and maintaining transmission lines.

The voltage component of a standing wave in a uniform transmission line consists of the forward
wave (with amplitude Vf) superimposed on the reflected wave (with amplitude Vr).
Reflections occur as a result of discontinuities, such as an imperfection in an otherwise uniform
transmission line, or when a transmission line is terminated with other than its characteristic
impedance. The reflection coefficient Γ is defined thus:

Γ is a complex number that describes both the magnitude and the phase shift of the
reflection. The simplest cases, when the imaginary part of Γ is zero, are:
 Γ = − 1: maximum negative reflection, when the line is short-circuited,
 Γ = 0: no reflection, when the line is perfectly matched,
 Γ = + 1: maximum positive reflection, when the line is open-circuited.
For the calculation of VSWR, only the magnitude of Γ, denoted by ρ, is of interest.
Therefore, we define
ρ=|Γ|.
At some points along the line the two waves interfere constructively, and the resulting
amplitude Vmax is the sum of their amplitudes:

At other points, the waves interfere destructively, and the resulting
amplitude Vmin is the difference between their amplitudes:

The voltage standing wave ratio is then equal to:

As ρ, the magnitude of Γ, always falls in the range [0,1], the VSWR is
always ≥ +1.
The SWR can also be defined as the ratio of the maximum amplitude
of the electric field strength to its minimum amplitude, i.e. Emax / Emin

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