This document analyzes issues related to tailoring conservation agriculture to smallholder farmers in developing countries. It discusses what conservation agriculture entails, its benefits, and some problems that can arise. Key factors that influence the adoption of conservation agriculture by smallholders are discussed, including mindset changes needed, access to knowledge, inputs, equipment, competition for crop residues, labor requirements, and policy support. Overall, the document finds that conservation agriculture has benefits but adaptations are needed to suit the circumstances of smallholder farmers.

1. Tailoring Conservation Agriculture to
the Needs of Smallholder Farmers in
Developing Countries:
An Analysis of Issues.
Patrick C. Wall
CIMMYT MR
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center

2. What is Conservation Agriculture?
Comprises two basic components
 Surface crop residue retention
 Minimal soil movement

3. What is Conservation Agriculture?
Plus other components essential to
overcome problems that emerge
once crop residues are retained:
• Crop rotation
• (Green manure cover crops)

4. Benefits of Conservation Agriculture
 Increased water infiltration
 Reduced moisture evaporation
 Less water run-off and soil erosion
 Reduction in labor and energy use
 Less turn-around time between crops
 Reduction in production costs *
 Increases in soil organic matter *
 Increases in nutrient availability *
 Greater biological pest control *
* Slower, cumulative benefits

5. Problems with Conservation Agriculture
 Mind-set. The paradigm of the plow!
 Weeds
 Nitrogen mineralization and fertilization
 Not adapted to soils with poor drainage
 Very dry areas?

6. Adoption of Conservation Agriculture
 Worldwide – estimated 95 million hectares
(Derpsch, 2005)
 Mostly on large, mechanised farms
 Over 90% in the Americas and Australia

7. Adoption of Conservation Agriculture
on Small Farms
 Brazil – approx 100,000 ha
 Ghana – 200,000 small farmers
 China? 2500
Est.
2000
 Indo-Gangetic Plains.
Hectares x 1000
1500
2 million ha of wheat 1000
in the rice-wheat 500
system. 0
98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02 02/03 03/04 04/05

8. Some Characteristics of Small Farmers
 Little access to financial capital
 Prioritize production of family food needs, with sale of
produce in excess of these requirements.
 Risk averse
 Manage mixed crop/livestock systems
 Limited land resources (although this is often not their
primary limiting factor)
 Rely on manual labor, animal traction and/or small
tractors for draught power, although they may
contract service providers (with larger equipment) for
some activities

9. Some Characteristics of Small
Farmers (contd.)
 Rely to a large degree on
family members for hand
labor.
 Have close community  Have less formal education
linkages with weaker links than large-scale commercial
outside the community. farmers
 Often are situated in
marginal areas with respect
to rainfall and topography
 Often have precarious land
tenure

10. An analysis of the patterns
of adoption of zero tillage in
six cases:
• Brazil
• Paraguay
• Bolivia
• Mexico
• Indo-Gangetic plains
• Ghana

11. Factors that Influence the Spread of
Conservation Agriculture
 Mind-set
 Knowledge
 Research and extension systems
 Access to inputs and equipment
 Competition for crop residues
 Labor requirements
 Crop productivity
 Political issues

12. Mind-set
 Doing away with the culture of the
plough
 Peer and community pressure

13. Knowledge - Management of CA
Technologies
 Conservation Agriculture is more
knowledge-intensive than input-intensive
 Success depends more on what the farmer
does than on the inputs s/he applies
 Smallholder farmers have little access to knowledge systems
outside the community
 Often their source of new agricultural information is from
sporadic contact with extension agents
 Extension agents in developing countries are often poorly
linked to knowledge and information systems

14. Knowledge - Remodeling Research
and Extension Systems (1)
 Research and Extension Systems in the developing
countries generally follow a linear model of knowledge
development and flow
Researchers conducting formal Researchers Farmers
research in established institutions Extension agents
Basic Strategic Applied Technology Adoption
research research research transfer
Knowledge flow

15. Knowledge - Remodeling Research
and Extension Systems (2)
 Although the principles of CA appear to have very wide
applicability, the techniques and technologies to apply the
principles are very site specific
 CA is a complex “technology” that involves changes in
many aspects of the production system
 Research and extension systems cannot develop “packages”
for all conditions.

16. Knowledge - Remodeling Research
and Extension Systems (3)
Machinery
Manu-
facturers  For Complex
Technologies, Multi-
Input Extension Agent Innovation
Suppliers (Change)
Agents Systems are required.
Innovative
Farmers
 Participation of
stakeholders is
essential.
Equipment
Researchers Developers

17. Limited Access to Inputs
 CA may require more investment in purchased inputs, especially
in the first years
 Smallholder farmers are willing to purchase and apply inputs if
the risks are low - CA generally reduces the risk associated with
crop production, especially due to drought
 Due to low volumes of demand and
production, coverage of input and output
markets may be poor
 Programs that help support and develop
input and output markets are necessary

18. Access to Equipment
 Adequate equipment, especially for
direct seeding, is a prerequisite for
successful application of CA
 There is little private investment in the
development of equipment for
smallholder farmer

19. Access to Equipment (2)
 Dissemination of available
equipment
 Participatory evaluation and
modification
 Stimulation (support) of local
manufacture

20. Competition for Crop Residues
 Competition is mainly for animal feed
 Animals are generally very important components of the
production system
 Communal grazing rights often apply

21. Competition for Crop Residues (2)
 But surface crop residue retention is essential for the
success of CA
 How much residue must be kept?
100
80
Relative
60
Erosion
% 40
20
Cover
%
20 40 60 80
2
Residue 4
t/ha 6 Erenstein, 1997.
Based on data of Shaxon et al., 1989,
8 Tripp and Barreto, 1993, and Kok and
Thien, 1994.

22. Competition for Crop Residues (3)
R0
Forage
A0
C M R
0
Ground Cover
Based on Sain, 1997

23. Competition for Crop Residues (3)
R1
R0
Forage
A1
A0
C M R R
0 1
Ground Cover
Based on Sain, 1997

24. Competition for Crop Residues (3)
R1
R0
Forage
A1
A0
C M R R R
0 1 2
Ground Cover
Based on Sain, 1997

25. Competition for Crop Residues (4)
Possible solutions
 Concentrate inputs (progressively) on part of the farm
 Intensify the production system to include better quality
forage
 Leave part or all of the
low quality forage on
the land
 Community awareness
of the problems of
land degradation

26. Competition for Crop Residues (5)
Data of K. Sayre from central
Mexico
Grain Yield (kg/ha)
8000
6000
4000
2000 W-M, ZT, +Res. W-M, ZT, -Res.
M-M, ZT, +Res. M-M, ZT, -Res.
W-M, CT, +Res. W-M, CT, -Res.
0
1996 1997 1998 2000 2001 2002

27. Labor use and labor productivity
 The most important factor that has driven adoption on
small farms
 In many cases crop productivity per unit of labor is more
important than per unit of land
 Especially important where family size or health is
declining
100 km/ha (Ethiopia, Bolivia) 140,000 hoe strokes/ha/yr (Malawi)

28. Crop Productivity
 Under equal conditions CA may not give yield
benefits
 CA allows more timely seeding – often a critical
factor in achieving high yields
 Downside risk is
generally lower with
CA

29. Policy Aspects
 Land tenure
 Subsidies
 Land stewardship
payments and
environmental
services

30. Facilitating the spread of CA in E&S Africa