1. Designing Product Innovations in Agriculture:
Remotely Measuring and Monitoring Agricultural Runoff
Annotated Bibliography
Prepared for Professor Phil Sealy
Compiled by Annie Baumann
December 1, 2010

2. Professor Sealy,
As you and your colleagues have begun to embark on a new grant-funded research
venture at the University of Wisconsin Platteville Pioneer Farm, I have been honored to assist
you in your research needs. In an attempt to better use some of the grant monies, as well as to
help your students develop critical skills to be used in industry-related careers, your team sought
to build a device that could remotely measure runoff water flow and head and remotely monitor
the quality of the water runoff in edge-of-field settings. Recognizing the need for a fairly
thorough literature review of sampling and monitoring programs, you began a basic search using
the resources available to you. However, after a few Google searches, you realized that an
expert searcher was needed to assist you in your research process. You explained to me your
situation, and after a consultation you determined that it was necessary for you and your team to
learn about the ways and methods other people in your situation have remotely monitored and
sampled agricultural runoff.
After a brief interlude in which I began seeking articles to help you answer your research
question, we met again and rephrased your initial query. Rather than just finding research
articles describing case studies in which a product was purchased for use in monitoring and
sampling agricultural runoff, you wanted information about how the equipment was designed
and built, providing, in a way, a series of possible blue prints for creating your own device.
Because you initially started your research process doing a simple Google search, I
focused on searching electronic databases that provide indexing and abstracting of scholarly
journal articles. Nearly every academic institution provides free access to these resources, and a

3. quick search of your University’s library website affirmed that you have several good databases
at your disposal. Through my own university, the following databases proved most useful:
GreenFILE
Biological Abstracts
AGRICOLA
Within these databases, I used the thesauri provided to match the terminology you provided in
our consultations (ex. water, (farm) runoff, sampler, remote, agricultural) to controlled
vocabulary (―Runoff/Analysis,‖ ―Runoff,‖ ―Sampling,‖ ―Equipment/Design‖). Most successful,
I found, was searching with a combination of controlled vocabulary and keyword/natural
language terms. While the number of results returned in my searches was, at times, fairly scarce,
from those provided I chose the most pertinent citations to give to you (see annotated
bibliography). After refining my searches and following many controlled-vocabulary- and
citation- leads, I carefully read through the abstracts of the articles returned from my searches
and chose only those that would answer an aspect of your research query.
I recommend that you use the articles I have provided in the annotated bibliography as a
starting point – if you find that a certain article or articles interests you, look at the article’s
bibliography and search for the citations that interest you in your library’s electronic databases.
Particularly, search in the natural sciences, agricultural, and environmental databases. While I
had little success searching the engineering databases provided through my university’s Dialog
subscription, I noticed that your university provides access to a number of potentially fruitful
environmental engineering and civil engineering databases – you might try searching these. As
always, please let me know if you require further assistance in your research or in future research
needs. Once again, thank you for providing me with this opportunity. It has been a pleasure
working with you.

4. Annotated Bibliography
Bonilla, C.A., et al. "Instrumentation for Measuring Runoff, Sediment, and Chemical Losses
from Agricultural Fields." Journal of Environmental Quality 35.1 (2006): 216-
223. Biological Abstracts. Web of Knowledge. Web. 17 Nov. 2010.
This work describes a simple, passive sampling system for measuring runoff, sediment,
and chemical losses from typical agricultural fields. The sampler consists of a 5 to 7 m
wide runoff collector connected to a series of multislot divisors. These divisors split the flow into
aliquots, providing a continuous sampling during the runoff event. Divisors were located in a
wooden box below ground level. With an adequate pump, this system can operate in fields with a
slope gradient as low as 2%, and can stay in the field during winter to record first snowmelt-
generated runoff. A radio transmitter reports by telemetry the occurrence and magnitude of
any runoff event, and indicates when the system should be sampled and emptied. This article
includes a description of the equipment, advantages, and disadvantages based on 2 yr of
operation, and examples of data collected.
Bonta, J.V., and F.B. Pierson. ―Design, Measurement, and Sampling with Drop-box Weirs.‖
Applied Engineering in Agriculture 19.6 (2003): 698-700. Agricola. EBSCO. Web. 1
Dec. 2010.
Rangelands, surface mines, construction sites, unprotected and long slopes, gullies,
eroding stream channels, and erosion plots will yield large sediment loads under high intensity
rainfalls. Conventional flow-measuring devices can easily become clogged with sediment and
debris during a major runoff event, resulting in the loss of runoff and sediment records. Flow
measurements can also be inaccurate using conventional flow-measuring devices in steep
channels. The drop-box weir (DBW) was developed to overcome many of the problems
encountered in sediment-laden flow measurement. The weir creates turbulence in a box that
entrains and passes sediment through the weir. It is not a well-known device, and it has not been
widely used. Yet it is only one of two devices suitable for obtaining flow records with large
sediment concentrations. It has utility for a range of watershed sizes from small erosion plots to
large watersheds. Information on what is known about the design and operation of the DBW, and
of sediment sampling approaches using the DBW, was compiled. Weir sizing, rating-curve
development, and sampling strategies were presented to facilitate its use and to identify its
limitations. There are four known configurations of the DBW: the original weir with upper weir
lips; a modification of the DBW for erosion plots (removal of upper weir lips); a modification of
the DBW for small watersheds in steep and skewed channels (removal of upper weir lips and use
of baffle); and a Korean version of the weir (larger chute opening to minimize blockage of trash
– suitable for large and small watersheds). For each of the four configurations, rating tables and
weir-sizing guidelines were summarized. Low-flow rating curves must be developed from field

5. data for individual weirs, but laboratory curves can be used for larger flow rates. Curve-fitting
procedures are outlined specifically for determining rating-curve equations where field data are
obtained. Water samplers designed specifically for use with DBWs are described. Other design
considerations are discussed for practical use of DBWs including measurement of stage,
maintenance, and sediment traps. Research needs for hydraulic modeling and sediment sampling
are presented.
Bonta, J.V. "Water Sampler and Flow Measurement for Runoff Containing Large Sediment
Particles."Transactions of the ASAE 42.1 (1999): 107-114. Agricola. EBSCO. Web. 17
Nov. 2010.
A flow-measuring and composite water-sampler system was needed for
sampling sediment-laden flaws containing large rock particles from strip-mine spoil erosion
plots. The median percentage of soil particle sizes greater than 16 mm of the greater-than 2 mm
fraction was 25%. A modified drop-box weir was used for measuring flows, and for providing a
well-mixed water and sediment flow that could be sampled. A "diverter" composite sampler was
designed to divert the entire flow from a waste position to a sample position, and precluded the
need to subsample (split) the sampled flows. Indoor testing of the sampler showed
the sampler worked well with the modified drop-box weir. Field evaluation showed
the sampler and drop-box weir worked well under natural rainfall conditions.
Recommendations for improvement in sampler and weir operation are given. Use of
the sampler for other applications is also discussed.
Bottcher, A.B., and L. Miller. "Flow Integrating Water Sampler for Remote Conditions." Applied
Engineering in Agriculture 7.4 (1991): 400-403. Agricola. EBSCO. Web. 17 Nov. 2010.
An inexpensive "paddle wheel" water sampler, to collect flow integrated water samples
under its own power, was designed, constructed, and field tested for field plots
exhibiting low gradient or submerged conditions. The sampler collects a flow-proportional
composite sample using a helical tube attached to a paddle wheel rotating through the control
flume of the sampler. The helical sampling tube collects a sample volume proportional to
the water depth and delivers it to a composite sample bottle with each rotation. The rotational
rate is proportional to flow velocity, so the resulting composite sample is approximately flow
integrated. The sampler in both laboratory and field tests performed well over a wide range of
submerged conditions. However, submergence over 90% did reduce the sampling rate by about
20%. Twenty-four "paddle wheel" samplers were used on high-water table field plots. All
samplers functioned well for over a year during a recent field study.

6. Burcham, T.N., et al. "Distributed Data Acquisition System for Runoff Monitoring and
Automated Water Sampler Control." Applied Engineering in Agriculture 14.6 (1998):
591-597. Agricola. EBSCO. Web. 17 Nov. 2010.
A distributed data acquisition system (DDAS) was implemented to monitor stage and
provide automated water sampler control for eight runoff plots. The DDAS was composed of a
host-computer communicating (RS-485 serial protocol) with multiple remote-sensor-to-
computer-interface (RSCI) modules via a single twisted-pair communication line. Control and
data storage routines were written in C++. Retrieved data are time-stamped and stored in a single
ASCII file. The DDAS was capable of monitoring multiple weather parameter inputs and flume
stage from eight runoff plots, while providing flow-weighted automated water sampler control.
System reliability was good, but was detrimentally affected by electrical storms and nearby
lightning strikes.
Clark, Shirley E., Siu, Christina Y.S., and Pitt, Robert. ―Peristaltic Pump Autosamplers for
Solids Measurement in Stormwater Runoff.‖ Water Environment Research 81.2 (2009):
192-200. Biological Abstracts. Web of Knowledge. Web. 17 Nov. 2010.
Regulatory agencies approve automatic samplers containing peristaltic pumps as a
sample collection method for stormwater characterization and for treatment-device evaluation.
Autosampler performance, as discussed in the limited available literature, can vary across the
entire particle size range typically found in stormwater from different source areas and outfalls
— reasonably consistent performance for particle sizes <250 μm, but much less consistency for
particles 250 μm. Therefore, a series of experiments was undertaken to quantify the upper range
of consistent particle capture that may occur with sampling stormwater suspended sediment and
particulate-bound pollutants. These experiments, based on triplicate sampling at each
experimental condition, found that peristaltic pump autosamplers commonly used in stormwater
monitoring could not repeatedly and effectively capture particles 250 μm from a simulated
stormwater whose particles have a specific gravity of 2.65. It was expected that the effective size
for autosamplers would be correspondingly larger for particles having smaller specific gravities.
The height of the sampler had no influence on particle recovery up to a height of 2.5 m, with
slightly decreasing recoveries of large particles occurring at greater heights, as a result of
reduced sampler intake velocity. Therefore, to characterize the solids across the entire size range
and specific gravities that may occur in stormwater runoff, autosamplers should be deployed in
conjunction with bedload and floatables sampling.
Cullum, R.F., et al. ―Shallow Groundwater and Surface Runoff Instrumentation for Small
Watersheds.‖ Applied Engineering in Agriculture 8.4 (1992): 449-453. Agricola.
EBSCO. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.

7. An acquisition system was constructed to sample and quantify surface runoff and shallow
groundwater. The main components of the system for shallow groundwater included
hydrologically isolated erosion plots with subsurface drains (installed via horizontal drilling),
outlets into sumps, tipping buckets mounted under drain outlets, composite water samplers, and a
series of sampling piezometers ranging from 0.3- to 6.1-m (1- to 20-ft) depths positioned in one
row of each main plot. The main components of the system for surface runoff from standardized
erosion plots cropped to corn were appropriately sized collectors, approaches, H-flumes
equipped with portable liquid-level recorders, runoff splitters, dataloggers, and composite
water samplers. The dataloggers recorded rainfall and runoff every minute and groundwater
discharge volume every 15 minutes during storm events. Water samplers were activated by the
dataloggers when the cumulative discharge volumes equaled or exceeded a preset condition.
Derived variables from surface runoff were incremental discharge rate, cumulative discharge
volume, sediment loads, and water quality. Groundwater incremental discharge and total
discharge volumes were recorded and the composite of the weighted-discharge samples were
analyzed for specific chemicals introduced as fertilizer or pesticides. Depth of free water within
each piezometer after major storm events was monitored to determine water movement in the
root and vadose zones.
Dressing, S.A., et al. ―Water and Sediment Sampler for Plot and Field Studies.‖ Journal of
Environmental Quality 16.1 (1987): 59. GreenFILE. EBSCO. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.
The design and performance characteristics of a flush-type sampling device for plot and
field studies are described. The sampler is weld-constructed and requires excavation and water
conveyance for installation. It operates with no external power supply and collects consistently a
known fraction of water and sediment passing through it. In laboratory tests, the sampler
collected 2.65% (number of data points (n) = 54, standard deviation (s) = 0.0040) of all water
passing through it at average flow rates ranging from 18 to 196 L min/sup -1/. Sample volumes
ranged from 0.75 to 18.7 L. Correlation analysis showed that sampling percentage was
independent of flow rate (n = 40, correlation coefficient = r = -0.04) over the range tested. In
other laboratory tests, 30 sampling runs with inflow rates and total sediment concentrations
ranging from 35 to 182 L min/sup -1/ and 252 to 1410 mg L/sup -1/, respectively, showed that
the ratios of waste to sample sediment concentrations were approximately one for total sediment
(1.001), and for the sand (1.097), silt (1.008), and clay (1.020) fractions. Sand and clay ratios
were shown to be statistically independent of total sediment concentration, but silt (r = 0.30, n =
30) and total sediment (r = 0.44, n = 30) ratios increased slightly with increasing total
concentration. Monte Carlo simulation was performed to illustrate the suitability of the flush-
sampler for field and plot runoff studies. Simulation results indicated that for runoff estimates
measurement error would exceed 10% with 33% probability for triplicate plots, but with only
16% probability in five plot studies.

8. Fogle, A.W., and B.J. Barfield. ―A Low Head Loss Sampling Device for Monitoring Inflow to
Natural Vegetated Filter Strips.‖ Transactions of the ASAE 36.3 (1993): 791-793.
Agricola. EBSCO. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.
A New Device was developed for use in sampling flows into natural vegetated filter
strips where minimal disruption of the flow onto the filter strip is desirable. The sample has
minimal head loss and allows sampling of flow from 4.57-m (15-ft) wide plots.
Harmel, R.D., R.M. Slade, and K.W. King. "Automated Storm Water Sampling on Small
Watersheds."Applied Engineering in Agriculture 19.6 (2003): 667-674. Agricola.
EBSCO. Web. 17 Nov. 2010.
Few guidelines are currently available to assist in designing appropriate automated storm
water sampling strategies for small watersheds. Therefore, guidance is needed to develop
strategies that achieve an appropriate balance between accurate characterization of storm water
quality and loads and limitations of budget, equipment, and personnel. In this article, we explore
the important sampling strategy components (minimum flow threshold, sampling interval, and
discrete versus composite sampling) and project -specific considerations (sampling goal,
sampling and analysis resources, and watershed characteristics) based on personal experiences
and pertinent field and analytical studies. These components and considerations are important in
achieving the balance between sampling goals and limitations because they determine how and
when samples are taken and the potential sampling error. Several general recommendations are
made, including: setting low minimum flow thresholds, using flow-interval or variable time-
interval sampling, and using composite sampling to limit the number of samples collected.
Guidelines are presented to aid in selection of an appropriate sampling strategy based on user’s
project -specific considerations. Our experiences suggest these recommendations should allow
implementation of a successful sampling strategy for most small watershed sampling projects
with common sampling goals.
Hsu, Y.S., et al. ―Capacitive Sensing Technique for Silt Suspended Sediment Concentration
Monitoring.‖ International Journal of Sediment Research 25.2 (2010): 175-184.
Biological Abstracts. Web of Science. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.
Automated, real-time, and continuous techniques for monitoring suspended sediment
concentration in rivers and reservoirs can play an important role in the improvement of the
quantity and quality of sediment data, and are valuable to the management of water environment,
water conservancy, hazard prevention, and water resources. Research in the monitoring

9. techniques has examined the possibility of using the characteristics of dielectric constants for
detecting soil moisture and concentration of air-water two-phase flow, based on the fact that
dielectric constants of sediment, air and water are different. A capacitance sensor was developed
to monitor the silt suspended sediment concentration (SSSC) in a recent study, following the
principle that as SSSC increases in the sediment-water mixture, the apparent dielectric constant
of the water sample also increases and therefore the capacitance detected by the sensing system
also increases. It is demonstrated that the variations in the concentration of silt sediment
correlates positively with the variations in observed capacitance in a linear fashion, and
correlates negatively with voltage outputs but also in a linear fashion. The correlation
coefficients reached above 0.98. The overall errors in estimated concentrations range between
0.26% and 2.91%. Elements in the capacitance sensor system such as the frequencies of the
signal generating system, areas of the electrode plates, and effects of sample temperature have
also been evaluated. The results illustrated that the capacitance sensor techniques can be applied
to monitoring SSSC automatically and continuously. Also, the range of SSSC in the experiment
reached 200 kg/m(3); therefore, the application of this technique in practical SSSC monitoring is
worthy of further research.
Klik, A., W. Sokol, and F. Steindl. "Automated Erosion Wheel: A New Measuring Device for
Field Erosion Plots." Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 59.3 (2004): 3. GreenFILE.
EBSCO. Web. 18 Nov. 2010.
For erosion experiments in the field where no electric power is available an automated
device for runoff and soil loss measurements was developed. This equipment is designed for
continuous runoff measurement from plots up to 60m2. The design is similar to a turning wheel
with a horizontal axle. The automated erosion wheel (AEW) consists of four equal sections each
one holding five liters (1.32 gal) resulting in a resolution for each tip of 0.08 mm (0.003 in) for
60m2 plots. The automated erosion wheel is capable of measuring a maximum rate of 75L min-1
(19.81 gal min-1). Each tip is monitored automatically in real time by a data acquisition system.
Up to three automated erosion wheels can be connected to one data logger. The whole system is
powered by one solar panel. Soil-water-suspension is divided by an adapted multi-tube divisor.
About 3.4% of the runoff is sampled in a plastic barrel for determination of sediment
concentration and soil loss. At this stage no temporal distribution of sediment delivery can be
recorded by the automated erosion wheel. After each erosive rain storm, collectors are emptied
and samples are taken to the lab for further analyses. With calibration of the tipping buckets
volumes an accurate, time distributed runoff measurement is possible. The maximum error in
sediment concentration measurement is 1.1%. Therefore, the chosen multitube device is able to
collect representative runoff samples containing same sediment concentration as surface runoff.
Each automated erosion wheel system is located in a shed. The automated erosion wheel has
been used at three locations in Austria since 1997.

10. Lecce, Scott A. "A Depth-Proportional Intake Device for Automatic Water." Journal of the
American Water Resources Association 45.1 (2009): 272-277. Agricola. EBSCO. Web.
17 Nov. 2010.
This paper describes the construction and testing of a device for
pumping water samplers that collects suspended sediment samples by moving the intake
vertically to keep it at the same proportion of flow depth. The device uses a simple sprocket
mechanism that can be mounted vertically on the downstream side of culverts and bridge pilings
to protect against damage from floating debris during storms. Suspended sediment samples
collected from an urban stream with the depth-proportional device were compared with manual
samples taken with a depth-integrated sampler. Scatter in the relationship between pumped and
manual samples (R2 = 0.76) are probably explained by horizontal variability in concentrations,
poor mixing associated with lateral sediment inputs from construction site erosion, the
downstream orientation of the intake, and the failure of the concentration at 60% of the flow
depth to match the average vertical concentration.
Nabholz, J.V., G.R. Best, and D.A. Jr. Crossley. ―An Inexpensive Weir and Proportional
Sampler for Miniature Watershed Ecosystems.‖ Water Resources Bulletin 20.4 (1984):
619-625. Agricola. EBSCO. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.
A weir system with a proportional sampler for use on miniature watershed ecosystems is
described. Eight weir collection systems were evaluated for their ability to measure and sample
inputs and outputs of soil-island ecosystems which occur on granite outcrops. The proportion of
water actually collected by the weir systems was generally less than the proportion the systems
were designed to sample, but adequate for supplying data needed for estimating elemental
budgets. The weir systems were not able to account for 25 to 50% of the variation in total water
passing over the cutoff wall. Several ways of improving overall performance of the weir systems
are discussed.
Ngandu, D.M., and K.R. Mankin. "Runoff Sampling System for Riparian Buffers." Applied
Engineering in Agriculture 20.5 (2004): 593-598. Agricola. EBSCO. Web. 17 Nov. 2010.
Riparian buffer system (RBS) effectiveness in reducing nonpoint source pollution from
surface runoff can be evaluated by measuring constituent concentrations and flow volumes
entering and exiting the system. This article describes the development and precision assessment
of a low-cost, low-maintenance surface runoff sampling system (ROSS) in measuring flow
volumes and collecting flow-weighted samples. The primary components of ROSS are a solar
panel, battery, pump with a float switch, and splitter assembly at a cost of $218 (2001). ROSS

11. delivers the runoff collected in a sump to a V-shaped splitter that separates successive fractions
of the total flow using six dividers. Eighteen ROSS units were subjected to lab and field tests to
establish calibration and quality control parameters and to determine the allowable maintenance
interval. The results indicate ROSS units provide a reasonable precision over time, as indicated
by flow volumes being within a 95% confidence interval of expected values for 96% (divider
#1), 100% (#2), 96% (#3), 89% (#4), 69% (#5), and 56% (#6) of the units. The mean measured
flow volumes by each divider in the lab and in the field were significantly different (alpha =
0.05), suggesting calibration factors are best determined in the field. ROSS units provided runoff
samples with the same precision over a 3-month period, demonstrating an ability to maintain
calibration over time. The ROSS unit meets the needs of a low-cost, flow-weighted sampler with
reasonable accuracy and ease of use and should facilitate more widespread field assessments of
RBS constituent-removal effectiveness.
Pinson, W.T., et al. "Design and Evaluation of an Improved Flow Divider for Sampling Runoff
Plots." Applied Engineering in Agriculture 20.4 (2004): 433-437. Agricola. EBSCO.
Web. 17 Nov. 2010.
An improved flow divider was designed to simplify and lower the cost of collecting
runoff data from research plots. The system was designed around commercially available and
inexpensive 5-gal (19-L) plastic buckets with screw top lids. A precision cut sheet-metal divider
"crown" is fastened to the lid, allowing it to be easily transferred between buckets. The divider
crown can be configured to handle various flow rates by specifying the number of flow divisions.
Laboratory evaluation of the design indicated that the system divides runoff with accuracies
within .5% over most of the flow range and within .15% at very low and very high flows. These
results are similar to those found for the more traditional flow divider designs. Adding sediment
to the inflow at three different flow rates yielded sediment division accuracies within 7%. Five
field research projects have used the divider system with few problems. The average cost of this
system is approximately US $500 per plot, in comparison to the US $3000 to $5000 it often costs
to instrument a plot using standard equipment.
Qu, L., et al. ―A Mechanic-electronic Sensor for Automatic Measurement of Sediment-laden
Flow Rate from Erosion Runoff Plots.‖ Journal of Hydrology 342.1-2 (2007): 42-49.
Scirus. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.
Erosion and hillslope surface/subsurface hydrology studies are in need of temporal
measurement of flow rates, where sediment-laden runoff normally presents. A new
method/sensor capable of taking automatic measurements of sediment-laden runoff flow rates is
presented. Mechanical structures, hydraulic backgrounds and computational principles of the
suggested sensor are discussed in details. Theoretical-analysis of surface hydraulic formed the

12. basis for formulating a function for calibration of the sensor to clear water flow. A functional
relationship was derived for adjustment of flow rates of sediment-laden water. Calibration
experiments validated the hydraulic relationship between the flow rate of clear water and the
sensor’s outputs. The adjustment function of flow rate produced highly accurate measurements
of sediment-laden runoff. Applications of the newly-developed flow senor to a laboratory
watershed exposed to rainfall evens of both constant and variable intensities demonstrate that the
sensor is highly accurate and capable of taking continuous measurements of the transient
hydrographic processes of runoff. The accuracy and reliability of the flow device with labor and
time saving advantages will be useful in hillslope hydrological monitoring for research and other
purposes.
Renard, K.G., C.E. Francher, and J.R. Simanton. ―Small Watershed Automatic Water Quality
Sampler.‖ Proceedings of the Fourth Federal Interagency Sedimentation Conference:
March 24-27, 1986, Las Vegas, Nevada / Subcommittee on Sedimentation, Interagency
Advisory Committee on Water Data; Agricultural Research Service … [et al.].
Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 1986. Agricola. EBSCO. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.
Salehi, F., A.R. Pesant, and R. Lagace. "Construction of a Year-round Operating Gauging
Station for Sediment and Water Quality Measurements of Small Watersheds." Journal of
Soil and Water Conservation 52.6 (1997): 431-436. Agricola. EBSCO. Web. 17 Nov.
2010.
Sheridan, J.M., H.H. Henry, and R.R. Lowrance. "Surface Flow Sampler for Riparian
Studies." Applied Engineering in Agriculture 12.2 (1996): 183-188. Agricola. EBSCO.
Web. 17 Nov. 2010.
A low-impact surface flow sampler was developed for riparian studies conducted in the
Coastal Plain region of the southeastern United States. The device consists of two primary
components, a splitter and a collector, which were used for unattended sampling
of surface flow in riparian buffer study areas. This low-cost device provides a composite event
sample at selected locations within experimental areas. The quantity of sample is
adequate for laboratory analyses of dissolved and suspended constituents for both large and
small flow events, and permits estimation of the volume of surface flow at the sampling location.
Installation and operation of the device requires little disturbance to the riparian buffer
ground surface and vegetation, or to surface flow within experimental areas.
Skarzynska, K., Polkowska, Z., Namiesnik, J., Przyjazny, A. ―Application of Different Sampling
Procedures in Studies of Composition of Various Types of Runoff Waters – A Review.‖

13. Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry 37.2 (2007): 91-105. Biological Abstracts. Web
of Knowledge. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.
Runoff waters are one of the forms in which precipitation reaches the ground and surface
waters. They are formed when rain or melting snow washes the surfaces of roofs, highways,
agricultural areas or tree canopies. Pollutants present in runoff waters can constitute a potential
danger to aquatic ecosystems. This paper reviews techniques and equipment for collecting runoff
water. It discusses storage and preparation of samples for analysis (errors made on the stage of
sampling, type of a sampled fraction-important step of analysis). This work presents
bibliographic information about a wide range of inorganic and organic compounds in various
form of runoff water (as a result of washing out pollutants from such surfaces as: highways,
building roofs, and agricultural areas).
Soultani, M., et al. "Measuring and Sampling Surface Runoff and Subsurface Drain Outflow
Volume." Applied Engineering in Agriculture 9.5 (1993): 447-450. Agricola. EBSCO.
Web. 17 Nov. 2010.
An instrumentation system for automatically measuring and sampling surface runoff and
subsurface drain outflow from experimental plots was developed. Surface runoff and subsurface
drain outflow were channeled to a central collection building where volumes were measured and
recorded by datalogger. The data stored in the datalogger were automatically transmitted to an
IBM-compatible computer at Harrow Research Station every 24 h. Laboratory calibration and
field verification of the system showed excellent agreement between actual and measured
volume. The digital output from the water-measuring device was used to activate a water
sampler at selected volumes.
Zhao, S.L., et al. ―Automated Water Sampling and Flow Measuring Devices for Runoff and
Subsurface Drainage.‖ Journal of Soil & Water Conservation 56.4 (2001):2. GreenFILE.
EBSCO. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.
Inexpensive devices that characterize water flow rates as well as take samples either
during runoff or subsurface drainage are needed especially for developing countries where the
commercially available equipment may be cost prohibitive. Even in the developed countries,
these devices could save considerable money especially if a large number of units are needed
such as in replicated plot experiments. This paper describes the design, construction and testing
of such devices for characterizing flow rates and also for collecting water samples from surface
tile inlets (runoff) and subsurface tile drains. For runoff, the tipping bucket device (about 4 L
(1.06 gallon) per tip) sits on top of a sample holder. Flow rates, ranging from 1 to 116 L min-1
(0.26 to 30.68 gallon min-1) are measured by recording the number of tips and time between two
consecutive tips. The maximum error in flow measurement is 0.4%. Water samples are collected
by catching about 20 mL (0.68 oz) of flow every other tip (an equivalent to about 0.25% of the

14. total runoff) in a polyethylene bottle in the sample holder. The sample holder houses 20 bottles,
19 are for sample collection. After a specific number of pre-programmed tips, the bottle is
advanced so that the next empty bottle is under the sampling port. The device can be
programmed to catch volume distributed or time distributed samples. The subsurface
drainage measuring and sampling device consists of a tipping bucket (410 ml (13.85 oz) per tip)
and a tygon tube connected to the sampling port at the base of the tipping bucket. A small
fraction (3 ml (0.1 oz)) of the water collects in the tygon tube every other tip. The tube is
emptied each day and the sample represents the daily composite drainage. A CR-10 data logger
provides the electronic controls for automating the system.