2. Conditional clauses
In general, conditional clauses convey a DIRECT
CONDITION – the situation in the matrix (main)
clause is directly related to the situation in the
subordinate clause, i.e. it is directly contingent on
the situation in the subordinate clause (direktno ovisi
o situaciji u zavisnoj klauzi):
 SUBORDINATE CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE
(1) If you put the baby down, she’ll scream.

3. Subordinators (zavisni veznici) for
conditional clauses
The most common subordinators for conditional
clauses are: if, unless. They are also used with
nonfinite and verbless clauses.
(2) Marion wants me to type the letter if possible.
(3) If not, I can discuss the matter with you now.
(4) Unless the strike has been called off, there will be
no trains tomorrow.
(5) Unless otherwise instructed, you should leave by
the back exit.

4. Subordinators for conditional
clauses
 Other conditional subordinators are restricted to finite clauses: given (that),
granted (that) <formal written style, particularly in argumentation>, on
condition (that), in case (that), provided (that), providing (that), supposing
(that), assuming (that), just so (that) <informal>, as long as, so long as:
 (6) Given that x = y, then n(x + a) = n(y +a) must also be true. <in formal
argumentation>
 (7) CompuServe offers anyone a free month’s trial, on condition that they
provide credit card or bank account details.
 (8) In case you want me, I’ll be in my office till lunchtime.
 (9) You may leave the apartment at any time, provided that you give a month’s
notice or pay an additional month’s rent.
 (10) Assuming that the movie starts at eight, shouldn’t we be leaving now?
 (11) He doesn’t mind inconveniencing others just so he’s comfortable.
<informal>
 (12) So long as you are very careful, you may drive the car.

5. Subordinators for conditional
clauses
 Nonfinite and verbless clauses with with or without as subordinator
may express a conditional relationship:
 (13) Without me to supplement your income, you wouldn’t be able to
manage.
 (14) With them on our side, we are secure.
 Unless introduces a negative condition. The unless-clause is roughly
equivalent to a negative if-clause. With unless there is a greater focus
on the condition as an exception (‘only if … not’). There are therefore
contexts in which the unless-clause cannot occur:
 (15) I’ll feel much happier, if he doesn’t come with us/*unless he comes
with us.
 (16) If you hadn’t studied hard, you would have failed the exam.
 (17) *Unless you had studied hard, you would have failed the exam.

6. Conditional clauses expressing an
indirect condition
 Some conditional clauses express an INDIRECT CONDITION, in that
the condition is not related to the situation in the matrix clause:
 (18) His style is florid, if that’s the right word.
 (19) If you remember your history lessons, the war was started by the
other side.
 (20) If you are going my way, I need a lift.
 (21) She’s far too considerate, if I may say so.
 In uttering (21), the speaker does not intend the truth of the assertion
‘She’s far too considerate’ to be dependent on obtaining permission
from the hearer. Rather, the condition is dependent on the implicit
speech act of the utterance: ‘I’m telling you, if I may, that she’s far too
considerate.’
 In conventional politeness, the speaker is making the utterance of the
assertion dependent on obtaining permission from the hearer, though
the fulfillment of that condition is taken for granted.

7. Types of conditional clauses
Type 0: cause and effect
Type 1: open condition
Type 2, 3: tentative, hypothetical, unreal condition

8. Type 0
(22) Oil floats if you put it on water.
(23) If he says “yes”, he means “yes”.
(24) If you work in the kitchen, you have to wear an
apron and a cap.
These sentences are statements of universal truth or
general validity.
In this type of conditional clauses, if corresponds
closely in meaning to when(ever).
The tenses in both the conditional and the main
clause are the same.

9. Type 1: open condition
Open conditions are neutral: they leave unresolved the question
of the fulfillment or non fulfillment of the condition, and hence
also the truth of the proposition expressed by the matrix clause:
(25) If Colin is in London, he is undoubtedly staying at the Hilton.
(26) If we catch the 10 o’clock train, we will (can, may, etc.) get
there by lunch time.
(27) If you wake up before me, give me a call.
Sentence (25) leaves unresolved whether Colin is in London,
and hence it leaves unresolved whether he is staying at the
Hilton.
In the if-clause we use the simple present tense, and in the
main clause a modal verb + present infinitive (most
frequently will), present progressive, or imperative.

10. Type 1: variations
(28) If you should change your mind, just give me a
call. OR Should you change your mind, just give me a
call.
Should in the conditional clause has the effect of
making it seem less likely that the condition will be
fulfilled. We can substitute by any chance for should:
(29) If by any chance you change your mind, …

11. Type 1: variations
(30) If you will teach me French, I’ll teach you English.
(31) We’ll finish the work quickly if you will give us a
hand.
Will in the conditional clause introduces the idea of
‘your’ agreeing, or being willing, to do what is
suggested.

12. Type 1: alternative forms
The imperative may be equivalent to an if-clause:
(32) Set your alarm clock, and you won’t oversleep. = If
you set your alarm clock, you won’t oversleep.
(33) Set your alarm clock, or (else) you’ll oversleep. = If
you don’t set your alarm clock, you’ll oversleep.

13. Type 2: tentative, hypothetical,
unreal condition
(34) If we took a taxi, we would/could/might catch the
train.
(35) If I came into a fortune, I would give up working.
(36) If I knew how it worked, I could tell you what to do.
In the above sentences, the conditional clauses express
what is possible (34), what is hypothetical/imaginary
(35), or what is contrary to present fact (36). The verb
form in the conditional clause expresses the attitude
of the speaker towards the condition; it does not
express time.
In the if-clause we use the simple past tense, in the main
clause a modal verb + present infinitive, most

14. Type 2: tentative, hypothetical,
unreal condition
In sentence (34) the speaker either regards catching a taxi
as improbable, or he wishes to put forward in a more
tentative or polite way the suggestion of catching it. It
does not necessarily follow that the condition is in fact
unlikely to be fulfilled.
Sentence (35) is much more hypothetical: it is a form of
day-dreaming.
Sentence (36) expresses a totally unreal situation with
reference to the time of speaking: it implies that I don’t, in
fact, know how it works, so I can’t tell you what to do.

15. Type 2: tentative, hypothetical,
unreal condition
A hypothetical condition in this type of conditional
clause conveys the speaker’s belief that the condition
will not be fulfilled, (for future condition) or is not
fulfilled (for present condition:
(37) If he changed his options, he’d be a more likeable
person. = “He very probably won’t change his
options.”
(38) They would be here with us if they had the time. =
“They presumably don’t have the time.”

16. Type 2: variations
Was to or were to followed by the present infinitive
expresses future hypothetical condition in more formal
contexts:
(39) If it was/were to rain, the ropes would snap. They’re far
too tight.
Should + present infinitive also expresses future
hypothetical condition in more formal contexts:
(40) If a serious crisis should arise, the public would have to
be informed of its full implication.
Both was/were to and should in an if-clause have overtones
of tentativeness.

17. Type 2: variations
(41) If you would reserve seats, we would be sure of a
comfortable journey.
Would in the if-clause expresses a more tentative or
polite form of will as used in the conditional clause
of Type 1. It introduces the idea of your agreeing, or
being willing, to do what is suggested.

18. Type 3: hypothetical, unreal
condition
(42) If you had listened to me, you wouldn’t have made
so many mistakes.
A hypothetical condition conveys the speaker’s belief
that the condition was not fulfilled (for past
conditions). The past perfect tense is used to indicate
past unreality = “You didn’t listen to me, and that’s
why you made so many mistakes”
In the if-clause we use the past perfect tense, in the
main clause a modal verb (most frequently would) +
perfect infinitive.

19. Some other ways of expressing
a present or past hypothetical
situation, or a wish/suggestion
(43) I wish (that) I were in Italy now. (=“I am not in
Italy now”)
(44) I wish (that) you had told me the truth. (=“You
didn’t tell me the truth”)
(45) If only I were rich! (=“I am not rich”)
(46) I’d rather they went there themselves. (=“I would
like them to go there themselves”)
(47) It’s time we told him the truth.
(48) It’s about time we left.
(49) It’s high time we were leaving.

20. Would in expressing a wish
(50) I wish you would stop smoking.
(51) I wish it would stop raining.
(52) If only it would stop raining.

21. Inversion
Conditional clause may have subject-operator
inversion without a subordinator if the operator is
were, should and had:
(53) Were she in charge, she would do things
differently.
(54) Should you change your mind, no one would
blame you.
(55) Had I known, I would have written before.

22. Rhetorical conditional clauses
Rhetorical conditional clauses give the appearance
of expressing an open condition, but they actually
make a strong assertion (like rhetorical questions).
Two types:
(I) if the proposition in the main clause is absurd,
the proposition in the conditional clause is shown to
be false:
(56) If they’re Irish, I’m the Pope. (“Since I’m obviously
not the Pope, they’re certainly not Irish”)

23. Rhetorical conditional clauses
(II) if the proposition in the conditional clause is
true, the proposition in the main clause is shown to
be true. The if-clause is in final position:
(57) He’s ninety if he’s a day. (“If you’ll agree that he’s
at least a day old, perhaps you’ll take my word that
he’s ninety”)

25. Direct and indirect speech
 Direct speech gives the exact words that someone utters or has
uttered in speech or writing.
 Indirect speech conveys a report of what has been said or written,
but does so in the words of a subsequent reporter:
 (1) David said to me after the meeting: “In my opinion, the arguments in
favour of radical changes in the curriculum are not convincing.”
 (1a) David said to me after the meeting that in his opinion the
arguments in favour of radical changes in the curriculum were not
convincing.
 (1b) David told me after the meeting that he remained opposed to any
major changes in the curriculum.

26. Direct and indirect speech
The report may be a representation of mental activity,
which by its nature is unspoken:
(2) “Should I tell them now,” I thought to myself, “or
should I wait until they’re in a better mood?”
(2a) He asked himself whether he should tell them then
or wait until they were in a better mood.

27. Backshift in indirect speech
Several changes are usually made in converting direct
speech to indirect speech.
If the time of reporting is expressed as later than
the time of the utterance, there is generally a
change of verb forms. This change is termed
BACKSHIFT, and the resulting relationship of verb
forms in the reporting and reported clauses is
known as the SEQUENCE OF TENSES.

28. Backshift in indirect speech
 DIRECT SPEECH BACKSHIFTED IN INDIRECT SPEECH
Present Past
Past Past or past perfect
Present perfect Past perfect
Past perfect Past perfect

29. Backshift in indirect speech
 (3) “I am being paid by the hour,” she said.
 (3a) She said she was being paid by the hour.
 (4) “The exhibition finished last week,” explained Ann.
 (4a) Ann explained that the exhibition finished/had finished the
preceding week.
 (5) “I’ve been waiting over an hour for you”, she told him.
 (5a) She told him that she had been waiting over an hour for him.
 (6) “I had studied French for four years at school before I abandoned the
subject,” I said.
 (6a) I said that I had studied French for four years at school before I
abandoned the subject.

30. Backshift in indirect speech
Backshift is optional when the time-reference of the
original utterance is valid at the time of reporting:
(7) Their teacher had told them that the earth moves
around the sun.
(8) Sam told me last night that he is now an American
citizen.
(9) They thought that prison conditions have improved.
(10) I didn’t know that our meeting is next Tuesday.
(11) She said that they are being discriminated against.
(12) The waiter told me that lunch is now being served.

31. Backshift in indirect speech
The reporting verb may be in the present tense for
communications in recent past time:
(13) She says she was too busy to join us last night.
The present tense is also used for report attributed to
famous works or authors which have present validity:
(14) Chaucer somewhere writes that love is blind.
Verbs of cognition may also be used in the reporting
clause in the present tense:
(15) I know they don’t care.

32. Other changes in indirect
speech
The reference to persons in indirect speech must
be appropriate to the situation at the time
reporting. There may therefore be changes in
pronouns or nouns:
(16) “I’ll behave myself,” he promised.
(16a) He promised that he’d behave himself.

33. Other changes in indirect
speech
Other changes may be necessary to adjust the references
to time or place:
yesterday → last Monday; the previous day, the day before
now → then
here → there
tomorrow → the next day
today → that day
ago → before
these → those
this → that

34. Indirect statements, questions,
exclamations, directives
INDIRECT STATEMENT: subordinate that-clause
INDIRECT QUESTION: subordinate wh-clause or
if/whether-clause
INDIRECT EXCLAMATION: subordinate wh-clause
INDIRECT DIRECTIVE: subordinate that-clause or
to-infinitive clause

35. Indirect statements, questions,
exclamations, directives
(17) “Are you ready yet?” asked John.
(17a) John asked (me) whether I was ready yet.
(18) “When will the plane leave?” I wondered.
(18a) I wondered when the plane would leave.
(19) “What a brave boy you are!” Margaret told him.
(19a) Margaret told him what a brave boy he was.
(20) “Tidy up the room at once,” I said to Tom.
(20a) I insisted that Tom tidy up/should tidy up the room at
once.
(20b) I told Tom to tidy up the room.

36. Conditionals in indirect speech
 Type 1 conditional clause becomes Type 2 in indirect speech:
 (21) “If we take a taxi, we’ll catch the 10 o’clock train,” Ann said.
 (21a) Ann said that if we took a taxi we would catch the 10 o’clock train.
 Type 2 conditional clause remains the same in indirect speech:
 (22) “They would be here with us if they had the time,” my mother said.
 (22a) My mother said that they would be here/there with us if they had
the time.
 Type 3 conditional clause remains the same in indirect speech :
 (23) “If I had seen you, I would have said hello,” my friend said.
 (23a) My friend assured me that if she had seen me she would have said
hello.