1. Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Education System:
Over the last 20 years, Bangladesh has made a significant progress in education. Primary
school enrollment increased from 12 million to over 18 million during 1990-1998. Other
parts of the education system also made an expansion. However, still one out of every five
primary school-age children is out of school, nearly a half of new entrants to primary first
grade are not of the official entrance age and of those enrolled, drop-out rate is high. Regional
and gender equity issues and educational outcome problems (such as still high illiteracy) add
to the challenge. The government, local community and nongovernmental organizations are
striving to improve the education sector performance with support from external agencies.
The report presents an overview of the education sector in Bangladesh based on secondary
material. Ithas been prepared by a team of national consultants. The objectives of this study
are to (i) present the current status and government policies in education and progress made
in the education sector in recent years; (ii) identify and explain major issues and constraints
in the development of education; and (iii) summarize major activities of government, non-
governmental organizations and external donor agencies and lessons learned from these
regarding future development. It is expected that this review will help Japan Bank for
International Cooperation (JBIC) to be informed about and to assess the constraints,
opportunities and choices for possible future support to development in the education sector
in Bangladesh. With 130 million people, Bangladesh is the eighth largest in the world in
population. It is also one of the most densely populated countries and endowed with limited
natural resources. Bangladesh has to rely, more than most developing countries, on its human
resources for progress and prosperity.
The constitution of the Republic provides general directives for formulating the country‟s
development goals, objectives and strategies. The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1997-2002)
document identified various strategies for reducing poverty, accelerating growth and building
a strong base of human capital. Recent development trends show that the pace of economic
growth has picked up, but not enough to make a significant dent on the income poverty
situation. Inequality in the rural socio-economic structure appears to be on the rise. While
education is seen as an instrument for achieving social and economicgoals, per capita annual
spending of about $7.50 on education remains very low. This represents a 2percent share of
public expenditure in GNP, one of the lowest in the world. The structure of education
provisions is characterized by discontinuities and disjunctions. The system is managed in a
highly centralized manner without the essential involvement of beneficiaries and without
accountability to them. Key organizational units of educational management and professional
support lack professional capacity and educational decision-making is often without
institutionalized professional involvement.
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2. 1.2 Job Market:
The present trends in Job Market continue to be what they were in the later part of the
20th Century. 'Fewer jobs and innumerable aspirants' is the order of the day now and no
wonder, employers and recruiters have a wide range of scope in the choice of their manpower
and they also have the final word in negotiating the compensation of employees.
The employees who secure a foothold in organizations with Herculean efforts coolly accept
without a murmur whatever salary is offered to them. This, however, is only one side of the
coin, as the situation is applicable mostly to the lower and middle level jobs. A modern
potential employer knows that an organization can be mechanically run by these employees
but the real growth development of it depends on the genuinely talented persons who even
assert and accept assignments only their own terms and conditions.
1.3 Objectives:
The objectives of this study are as follows:
1. Present the current status, government policies, and progress made in
Bangladesh‟seducation sector in recent years;
2. Identify and explain major issues and constraints in the development of education
andfactors related to the issues; and
3. Summarize major responses to the issues by government, non-governmentalorganizations
and external donor agencies and main lessons learned.
It is expected that this review will help Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) to
beinformed about and to assess the constraints, opportunities and choices for possible
futuresupport to development in the education sector in Bangladesh.
1.4 Methodology:
This paper is based on primary and secondary data. The Primary data have been collected
through with the concerned authorities, visitors, tour operators, industry expert and local
people. The Secondary data have been collected from the publications of Bangladesh
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3. ParjatanCorporation (BPC), Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Bangladesh Bank, the
concerned ministry and published thesis, books, journal, daily newspapers and websites etc.
1.5 Limitation of the study:
This report is aptly described as an overview of the education sector rather than a
sectorreview, which would usually entail more detailed description and analysis than
presented here and would preferably, be prepared in close collaboration with responsible
governmentauthorities in different sub-sectors. This presentation is primarily descriptive with
analysis andjudgment incorporated as appropriate. The report does not prescribe a policy
package or aninvestment program, though policy options have been discussed and lessons
relevant fordeveloping policies and programs are indicated on the basis of available
information.
1.6 Report Preview:
This report contains six chapters. Chapter one is about relevant introductory information
about the report. Chapter Two will provide some useful information about Job market and
education system. Chapter Three is an analysis. Chapter four is Problems and Prospects job
market and education system. Chapterfive draws findings of the study, Conclusion and
Recommendations.
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4. Chapter-2
JOB MARKET
Overseas employment has come down sharply in recent times as many Bangladeshi workers
are losing jobs abroad because of the global economic meltdown, which is unlikely to create
pressure on the country‟s domestic employment. This apprehension has increased more
following Wednesday‟s ILO report that global unemployment in 2009 could increase over
that of 2007 by a range of 18 million to 30 million workers, and more than 50 million if the
recession continues to deteriorate. A total of 44,378 Bangladeshis got jobs abroad last
December and 46,267 till January 27 while 75,516 workers joined overseas jobs monthly on
an average in 11 months of 2008, according to the statistics of the Bureau of Manpower
Employment and Training (BMET).This declining rate of overseas employment is unlikely to
dip further in the coming months as Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE), which
were the main destinations of Bangladeshi workers in last two years, have already reduced
the number of hiring Bangladeshi workers. Malaysia hired only 6,701 workers last December
and 5,694 till January 27, indicating decrease in recruitment. The country hired 11,369
Bangladeshi workers monthly on an average in the first 11 months last year. Malaysia‟s
Deputy Prime Minister NajibRazak told the parliament last October that his government was
taking steps to reduce the number of foreign workers by 400,000 in a year until 2010.On the
other hand, the UAE, which hired about 3.95 lakh workers out of 8.32 lakh from Bangladesh
in 2008, has reduced issuing work visas due to the global economic meltdown. The UAE
hired 23,978 Bangladeshi workers last December while 25,463 till January 27, although it
hired around 36,000 workers on an average each month until November 2008.There are also
some reports that reveal that many workers are losing jobs in the UAE.Bangladesh‟s
traditional and major labor market Saudi Arabia has also significantly reduced issuing work
visas to Bangladeshis since February last year. In December last year, Saudi Arabia recruited
only 1,531 Bangladeshi workers and 981 till January 27 this year. Kuwait, on the other hand,
stopped hiring Bangladeshi workers in late 2006 following an allegation of malpractice in
hiring the workers. Besides, Bangladeshi workers are losing jobs in Singapore, which is
facing serious global financial meltdown, mainly in the shipping business. Sultana Adnan,
welfare coordinator of Singapore Bangladesh somite in Singapore, told The Daily Star over
phone that around 10,000 Bangladeshi workers who lost jobs were provided with some food
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5. and shelters by some charities in that country. Some workers have already returned home
after losing their jobs. “Bangladesh is unlikely to face a negative impact in overseas
employment if the current situation continues. This will certainly put a pressure on the
domestic employment," said Abdul HyeMondal, senior research fellow at Bangladesh
Institute of Development Studies (BIDS).An official at the expatriates‟ welfare ministry said:
"We have still some hopes as Libya, Jordan, Qatar and Syria have a good demand of workers
and we must take this opportunity. “The government should also make high-level dialogue
with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait to fully open their markets for Bangladeshi workers, he added.
In Bangladesh the pharmaceutical sector is one of the most developed hi-tech sectors within
the country's economy. After the promulgation of Drug Control Ordinance - 1982, the
development of this sector was accelerated. The professional knowledge, thoughts and
innovative ideas of the pharmaceutical professionals working in this sector are the key factors
for these developments. Due to recent development of this sector it is exporting medicines to
global market including European market. This sector is also providing 97% of the total
medicine requirement of the local market. Leading pharmaceutical companies are expanding
their business with the aim to expand export market. Recently few new industries have been
established with high tech equipment‟s and professionals which will enhance the strength of
this sector
Two organizations, one government (Directorate of Drug Administration) and one semi
government (Pharmacy Council of Bangladesh), control pharmacy practice in Bangladesh.
The Bangladesh Pharmaceutical Society is affiliated with international organizations
International Pharmaceutical Federation and Commonwealth Pharmaceutical Association.
According to Bangladesh Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare Report Q1 2011, Bangladesh
medicine sales reached Taka 7,000 core in 2010. Business Monitor International in its latest
report (Q1 2011) said Bangladesh has moved up one place to occupy the 14th position in 17
regional markets surveyed in BMIs Pharmaceutical & Healthcare Business Environment
Ratings for the Asia region. Still, Bangladesh has a long way to go, the report said. This
adjustment now sees Bangladesh placed below Vietnam and above Sri Lanka. Bangladesh's
pharmaceutical rating is 40.2 out of 100, a figure that has changed marginally from the
previous quarter but remains lower than the regional average of 53.1. Globally, Bangladesh
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6. occupies 67th position in BMIs 83 market-strong pharmaceutical universe.
The industry players forecast the growth trend would take the sales volume to Tk 10,000
crore in 2011. Square, Beximco, Eskayef, Incepta and Acme are the top five manufacturers
by sales and growth rate.
Beximco grew faster than other companies at a staggering 33 percent in 2010 with Tk 523
crore sales. Incepta's sales and growth rate were Tk 665 crore and 31 percent respectively,
followed by Acme's Tk 600 crore and 17 percent. Eskayef logged Tk 426 crore in sales and
the growth rate was 27 percent, the third highest pace in the year, said a company official.
“Increasing health consciousness and buying capacity have helped the industry grow
consistently,” said MizanurRahmanSinha, managing director of Acme Pharmaceuticals, one
of the fastest growing manufacturers. Sinha predicts the industry's total sales at Tk 10,000
crore in the current year.
Managing Director of Incepta Pharmaceuticals Abdul Muktadir echoed the same reason for
the market growth, but he is not surprised to see the success. Muktadir said 5 percent GDP
growth helps the pharma industry grow at 15 percent, and 6 percent and 7 percent growth
makes it 20 percent and 25 percent respectively.
Sales of Square Pharmaceuticals, the market leader, were Tk 1,270 crore in 2010, up from Tk
1,116 crore a year ago. Sales grew 14 percent year-on-year.
AM Faruque, managing director and chief executive officer of Apex Pharma, finds
Bangladesh market to be a potential one. He thinks affordability and availability of medicines
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7. will help the market boom in the next few years. Faruque said Apex Pharma, which is not a
big player now, will emerge as one of the top five companies in five years. The present
turnover of the company is Tk 60 core only. “Apex is coming in a big way,” said Faruque.
Bill Mckean, a UK pharmacist who has recently joined Apex Pharma as its chief technical
officer, sees a huge prospect and high-quality players in the local market. According to him, a
large population and relaxation of trade related intellectual property rights (TRIPS) for least
developed countries are contributing to the market growth.
The Changing and Challenging Features of Labor Market in Bangladesh
The changing features of the composition of labor force, employment, unemployment,
underemployment scenario depends on various factors such as demography, structural
change, change of social attitude, trends of economic activities, the macroeconomic policies
initiated by private and public sectors as well as multilateral organizations specially the
World Bank, IMF, United Nation. In various cases, the factors are interrelated with various
aspects. In this section of this paper, we will elaborately explore the anatomy of the labor
market in Bangladesh and the literature survey associated with various economies along with
Bangladesh.
Chletsos, Kollias and Manolas (2000) found that the growth rate has a positive impact on the
employment level; however, there is a negative relationship between employment and labor
productively. Chletsos and Markellos (2005) also GDP, exports to imports and employment
level (Chletsos, 2005).
Though Bangladesh achieved GDP growth rate 6.634% in period 2005-06 compared with
5.26% period 2002-2003. Crude activity rates (indicates the ratio of the economically active
population to the total population expressed in percentage) of male and female increase
butwith higher gap. Over the year, it has no significant change. Another aspect is that the
unemployment rate remains almost constant at 4.3%. Figure 1 exhibits GDP growth rate and
unemployment rate of population age 15 and above in Bangladesh by sex, 1995-2006.
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8. Source: BBS: Labour force survey (Dhaka, GoB, Various years) Bangladesh Economic Review (GoB,
various years)
Note: a at constant prices for year 1995-96
Source: BBS: Labor force survey (Dhaka, GoB, Various years) Bangladesh Economic Review (GoB,
Various years)
Note: a at constant prices force year 1995-96
In figure 2 unemployment rate was 3.5 percent in the year 1995-96 which was lower compare
to 1999-2006. However, female unemployment rate was 7.8 percent and over the year it has
been declined to 7 percent. In the year 2002-2003 female unemployment rate was low
(9.9percent) compare to other fiscal year among 1995 to 2006. In contrast to the female
unemployment rate, in the 2002-2003, male unemployment rate was high (9.2 percent)
compare to other fiscal years among 1995 to 2006.
The labor force is growing faster than the employment opportunities, hence the unemployed
persons increase over time. Instead of these, change of sectorial growth rate is also
responsible for the rising unemployment rate. Table 1 shows that over time (2001 to 2007)
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9. the growth rate of agriculture and forestry sector is very instable, while the lion‟s share of
labor force in
Bangladesh is engaged in agricultural sector. Based on table 1, the growth rate of
manufacturing sector for FY 2005-07 is 9-72 percent against 10.77 percent in the previous
year. However, in 2004-2005 the growth rate was 8.19. Mainly the knitwear, ready-made
garments and cotton textile fuel the growth of manufacturing. The growth of service sector
also increases. Nevertheless, the rate of increment of manufacturing and service sectors is not
sufficient to recruit all involuntary unemployed in these sectors.
Source: Bangladesh Economic Review 2008, Ministry of Finance, Gob.
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10. Source: Calculated from the BBS: Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh, Various years (Dhaka,
Gob).
In figure 3 shows that over the year employment level in agriculture sector has been declined.
In contrast to agriculture sector, employment level in manufacturing and service sectors have
been increased. There exists gender variation in respect of employment by the major industry
sectors (does not show in the figure). Among the male, as high as 39-27% were engaged in
agriculture, forestry and related works followed by wholesale, retail trade 18.58% and
manufacturing 10.88% and transport, storage and communications 10.84%. On the other
hand for the females the highest 66.54% were in agriculture forestry and related works
followed by 11.51% in manufacturing sector and 8.58% in other community social and
personal activities, whereas in the urban area 17.33% male and 24.58% female were engaged
in manufacturing sector. Therefore, the manufacturing sector is an emerging sector of
employment potentials. RMG sector is also an emerging sector for female workers. Over the
year, female employment rate compared to male increases in the RMG sector. Figure 4
depicts that female employment as a percentage of total employment in the RMG sector
increases from 85% (in 1992) to 90.7% (in 2000) from the year 1995 to 1988 the rate was
constant at 90%. But in the absolute value, female employment rises from 1218 thousand to
1500 thousand respectively from 1995 to 1998.
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11. Source: Rahman, 2005
After phasing out of the Multi-Fiber Arrangement (MFA) of trade on textile and clothing, no
negative impact has been felt in the sector and no worker has lost his or her job. Export data
for FY 2006-07 reveals that export of knitwear and woven garments registered a growth
19.30 percent and 14.05 percent respectively compared to the previous fiscal year. In FY
2006-07, exports registered a growth of 37.39 percent in knitwear and 38.25 percent in
woven garments. Government has taken several initiatives for the sustainable development of
RMG sector considering its contribution to the national income and employment generation.
Beside these, government allocated Tk. 20 core in the budget of 2006-07 for the purpose of
creating employment through alternative training in different areas if workers lose their jobs
due to negative impact in the quota-free regime.
Now it is to analyze the employment and unemployment situation by residence. Here we will
specially focus on the rural areas its changing features and the empirical studies conducted on
the rural labor market.
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12. Source: BBS: Labor force survey (Dhaka, Gob, 2002-2003, 2005-2006)
Unemployment rates are relatively higher in urban areas compared to rural areas from 1995
to 2003. In 1999-2000, urban unemployment rates for male and female is respectively 5
percent and 8.3 percent whereas rural unemployment rate for male and female are
respectively 2.9 percent and 7.6 percent. In 2002-03 figure 4 reveals the same trend in
different magnitude. Instead of those trends, in 2005-2006 female unemployment rate is
higher in rural area compare to urban area. In the same period in case of female
unemployment in rural area however, the highest rate is observed for age group 15-19
(30.27%) followed by age group 20-24 (10.84%) and 25.29 (6.21%). In urban area, female
unemployment rate is highest for age group 25-29 (10.14%) followed by age group 20-24
(10.02%) and 15-19 (9.03%). For male unemployment in both urban and rural areas,
unemployment rate is highest in the age group 20-24 where the unemployment rates are 9.33
percent, 9.13 percent and 9.38 percent respectively in national, urban and rural areas.
Using OLS regression estimation Rahman (1993) examines the determinants of the hours of
employment obtained by the female workers in rural areas. She finds the human capital
variables (age, square of age, years of experience) are not statistically significant while their
coefficient values are also very low. Here the relationships among dependent and explanatory
variables of human capital are negative. As their values are not significant, the author
interprets that these forces are not operating in the female labor market. The location with
low productivity has a significant negative coefficient. The variables reflecting recruitment
cost have negative coefficients. There is a negative relationship between dependent variable
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13. and wage rate per hour. The value is statistically significant. The author concluded that
expansion of employment opportunities is an urgent need since involuntary underemployment
exists.
Ahmed (1981) has studied on the aggregate level of rural labor market. The author finds that
rural unemployment is not involuntary largely prevalent among family workers of middle and
rich farm households. Landless and land-poor wage workers do not remain unemployed even
for a few days, except during natural calamities when crops and employment potentials are
lost (Hossain, 1996). Hossain (1996) argues that since the rural people in Bangladesh live in
village generation after generation, they know how to adopt and cope with the vulnerable
situation. The author says that the rural people „have developed various income and
employment smoothing mechanisms through which they can manage to remain employed.‟
Over the year landlessness and near-landlessness is gradually increasing while it is neither a
necessary nor a sufficient condition for rural poverty.
By using OLS estimation Hossain (1996) finds that the impact of the new technology on the
rate of aggregate unemployment and under employment is negative. The relationship between
agricultural real wage rate and agricultural employment is positive. Hence the over all results
suggest that the new technology does not raise the real wage rate.
Hossain (1988) finds that launching the new technology affects the labor market through
income effect. As income increases, rich households substitute their leisure for labor, hence,
employment being redistributed from higher to lower income groups (Hossain, 1996).
Nevertheless, Rahman (2004) finds that as the new technology (modern irrigation, seed and
fertilizer) being introduced in the agriculture sector, hired labor demand is rising, while the
use of machinery for land preparation leads to reduce the demand of hired labor. Hence, the
net effect is difficult to predict without empirical estimation.
Due to the sectorial productivity differentials and wage differentials, in the rural labor
market, labors migrate from farm to non-farm sector. The RNF sector provides a large
number of employment opportunities for the growing labor force. There are intersectional
linkages that introduce the RNF sector as an emerging sector of the future growth of
economy (Mahmud
1996). The RNF sector generates full-time, sustainable employment in small-scale industry
especially for the low productive workers, which may promote the income of
unskilledworkers and vulnerable groups. Thus, large-scale migration to cities would be
stopped andfemale labor force would be more benefited (Varma& Kumar, 1996).
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14. Consequent result is that the unemployment problem is not serious in the rural labor market,
through the underemployment rate is very high in the rural area. Therefore, the government
of Bangladesh should take initiatives to promote the prospect of RNF sector for sustainable,
secure as well as social standing employment opportunities.
New we would like to focus on the educated unemployed persons. Figure 6 shows the
disparity of composition educated unemployment with respect to sex and residence. It shows
grim picture in the sense that unemployment rate is higher along with the increase of
education level. It is especially confessable for female labor force. In 2005-2006 the female
unemployment rate at the education level HSC/equivalent is 22.18% followed by the
unemployment rate who have technical/vocational education (20.94%) in the rural area, while
in the urban area the highest unemployment rate is at the level Engineering/medical (19.02)
and the second highest is at the level class IX-X (15.94%). The feature is also available in
previous years. This scenario may depress the women and hence the enrollment of women for
higher education will be declined.
The feature is not quite different for male unemployment at higher level of education. Male
unemployment rate is highest in case of having HSC/equivalent education level (8.58%)
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15. followed by technical/vocational education level (7.11%). Now it may suppose to relate the
figure with figure 7.
Figure 7 shows that in agricultural, hunting and forestry 51.15 percent employed persons
have no education; in the fishing 53.29 percent employed persons have no education.
Similarly in mining and quarrying, manufacturing, construction, wholesale and retail trade,
hotels and restaurants, transport, storage and communications and other community, social
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16. and personal service activities sector most of the peoples who are employed, have no
education. In the service sector, educated employment rate is very high. The same trend
found in 2002-2003 but in different magnitude.All of the sectors where employed persons of
no education level are highest in 2005-2006; the same features are found in 2002-2003, but in
higher magnitude. It exhibits the potentials of educated employment prospects. Figure 2 also
shows the potentials as the service sector is a growing sector.
Unemployment rate is not very high in Bangladesh labor market. Therefore, it is not a very
serious problem. Instead of unemployment problem, underemployment is a serious problem
especially for female labor.
Education system
2.1 Primary Education
Primary education begins at the age of 6. There are five grades in primary 6chools-clas6 I to
class V. For each grade annual examination is held subject wise and each student has to pass
in all the subjects to get promotion to the next higher class.
Each Institution conducts examination as per prescribed courses and syllabuses. There is no
public examination at the end of class V. The head teacher of respective institution issues
school leaving certificates to successful students. There is a system of scholarship
examination at the end of class V. Each institution selects its best students to appear in this
examination which is conducted by the Upa-Zilla Education Officer. Merit scholarships are
awarded by the government to successful students.
The administration of primary school is conducted by the Directorate of Primary Education
under the Ministry of Education which has field offices in every District headquarters. Of the
total number of M, 200 primary schools in the country, 36,697 are managed by the
Government and the rest are privately managed. Primary education in government primary
schools is free.Pre-Primary Education. Some formal arrangements for pre-primary education
may befound in urban areas. This does not fall within the public education system. There
exist some privately managed nursery and kindergarten schools in the urban areas.
In the rural areas, however, informal pre-primary education is often arranged by the local
committees.
Status · Government schools in 2000 served 61% of students (others: registerednon-Gov.
schools: 24%, Islamic schools:9% and others:6%), Gov.subventions for 90% of staff costs
and capital grants to other formalschools; free textbooks to all formal schools
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17. 2.2 Secondary Education
Secondary education in Bangladesh may be divided into three stages: Junior Secondary,
Secondary and Higher Secondary. Secondary education is offered at secondary schools
known as High Schools and higher secondary education is offered at Intermediate Colleges
and intermediate section of Degree Colleges. Normally a High School comprises five grades,
i.e. class VI to Claus X and Intermediate Colleges comprise two grades, i.e. class XI and XII.
There are many High Schools in Bangladesh which, combine the primary stage (class I-V)
and offer teaching up to class X. There is yet another type, called Junior High Schools which
have teaching facilities up to class VIII. The total number of Secondary school including
Junior High School is 9^85 in Bangladesh. Out of them 181 schools are directly managed by
the Government.
The curricular structure is uniform up to class VIII where the basic programme is of general
education. There is no public examination up to this grade. Each institution conducts its own
examination.
Class-wise annual examination is held and promotion to next higher class is given only if a
student gets a minimum prescribed mark. A country-wide scholarship examination is held
every year which is conducted by the Deputy Director .of Secondary and Higher Education of
each administrative Division. Merit scholarships are given to successful candidates.
Diversification of curriculum has been introduced at class IX, where students separate into
two streams of courses: science' and humanities. The academic programme is intended to be
terminal at the end of class X where the students appear at a public examination called
Secondary School Certificate (S*S.C.) but primarily the programme in directed to the
preparation of students for entrance; o in the higher secondary
At the higher secondary stage the academic programme for general education is of two years
duration (class XI to XII) witha public examination called Higher Secondary Certificate
(H.S.C.) examination at the end of class XII. Courses are diversified into science, commerce,
humanities, home economics, agriculture and Music.
Secondary schools, Intermediate Colleges and intermediate sections of Degree Colleges
offering general education require affiliation of the regional Boards of Intermediate and
Secondary Education for academic and elimination purposes. There are four such Boards
(one for each administrative division) having their headquarters at Dhaka, Rajshahi, Comilla
and Jessoredistricts respectively. All the schools are bound to follow the curriculum and
syllabus prescribed by the respective Board and entire candidates for examinations of the
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18. S.S.C. and H.S.C. arranged by the Boards. Although these Board are completely separate in
their academic end administrative affairs, their general scheme of studies are uniform.
Academically, all the secondary schools and higher secondary institutions (Intermediate
Colleges) are not under the control of the Boards which does not grant the affiliation without
which schools and colleges cannot admit candidate for public examination nor can they
arrange any such examination for the levels of S.S.C. and H.S.C. The methods of
examinations are mostly written in nature and practical examinations are taken in science
subjects and in other subjects where necessary. For the purpose of grading 100 marks are
allotted for each paper. Minimum marks for First Division, Second Division and Pass are 60,
it5, and 33 respectively.
A student who secures at least 75 percent marks in aggregate is awarded a 'Star'. The pass
mark for individual paper is 33* Successful candidates are awarded certificate by the Boards
concerned. To qualify for a certificate n candidate must pass in all the subject'(for those
requiring practical examinations, it is necessary to pass in theory and practical seperately).
With out formal schooling a candidate can appear in S.S.C. and H.S.C. examinations as
private candidates with the permission of the Board concerned. Similarly, external candidates
can also appear in the examinations.
Secondary and higher education is adrainistred by the Directorate of Secondary and Higher
Education which has field offices at every division and district.
Status · 97% of schools run by non-government providers and who receive substantial public
funds.
· Promotion rate from primary-secondary has improved from 60 („90) to 80% („97).
· GER: 41% („99) at Lower Secondary & Secondary; < 20% at Highersecondary.
2.3 Technical Education
Technical education in Bangladesh is organized in three phases, viz. certificate, diploma and
degree. The certificate course which prepare skilled workers in different vocations are of 1 –
2 years duration after 8 of schooling (class VIII) imparted in Vocational Training Institutes
(V.T.I.).
Polytechnic Institutes and Monotechnic Institute offer diploma courses in engineering,
commercial and industrial subjects'. The duration of the course is 3 years for technical
courses and two years for commercial courses after S'.S.C.
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19. Public examination is held for every type of course under the auspices of the Bangladesh
Technical Education Board and all diplomas and certificates are awarded by them. The Board
has full academic control over technical and vocational institutions and they require its
affiliation for all academic purposes. Following are the types of examinations conducted by
the Technical Education Board:1) Diploma in Engineering 2) Diploma in Engineering
(KaptaiCentra), 3) Diploma in Commerce k) Sub-Overseer Examinations 5) Trade Final
Examination 6) Textile Examinations 7) Diploma in Printing 8) Certificate in Secretarial
Science 9) Certificate in Business Typing 10) Diploma in Ceramics 11) Diploma in Survey.
Technical institutions managed by the Technical Education Directorate are affiliated to the
Technical Education Board for Examination purposes. Besides, the Institute of Marine
Technology and the Technical Training Centers (TTC) run by the Ministry of
Women Affairs are affiliated to the Board for academic purposes.
Private institution like Shatlipy Academy, Dhaka, Baderpur Akbar Ali Khan Commercial
Institute, Comilla and two institutes offering eub-overseer course-one at Comillaandthe other
at Kajshahi managed by respective District Council and similar other private vocational and
trade inetitutione numbering 1?5 are registered with the Technical Education Directorate and
affiliated to the Board. The Ministry of Agriculture operates >a nuniber of Agricultural
Extension Training Institutes where a two years course for e Diploma in Extension work is
given after S.S.C.
Madrasah Education
Beside the above general system of education there is a parallel system known as Madrasah
Education which offers traditionally Islamic instruction to Muslim boys and girls. The
Madrasah has the following stages:
Ibtedayee (i.e. Primary of 5 years duration)
Dakhil (i.e. Secondary of 5 years duration after Ibtedayee)
Alim (i.e. Higher Secondary of 2 years duration after Dhakil)
Faz.il (i.e. Bachelors degree of ? years duration afterAlim)
Kamil (i.e. Master's degree of 2 years duration after Faail)
Subjects taught in these institutions focus mainly on the study of Holy Quran, Hadith,
Tafeir,Fiqh, Usul and Arabic language and literature. In addition, provision has also been
made for the teaching of General Science, Mathematics, Social Studies, Bengali-, English,
Persian and Urdu in appropriate levels so that the Madrasah students become qualified
forgene.ral vocations as well. In nil the stages, except Ibtedayee, public examinations ore
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20. held under the auspices of Bangladesh Education Board and certificates and degrees ore
awarded by them.
All the institutions of different stages better known as 'Madrasah' require affiliation and
recognition of the Madrasah Education Board. Courses and curricula are designed by them
<md academically the Board has full control over the Mhdrasahs. Examination procedures
are same an that of general system of education.
Degrees are awarded in First Division, Second Division and Paaa. Names and titles of the
certificates and degree awarded by the Mudrasah Education Board are 1) „Dakhil‟?)Alim 3)
Fuzil
k) Kamil (post graduate degree), the later being classified into four groups of studies like
'Hadis' 'FiqhllAdabl and Tafsir.
Furquenia, Hafizia&Quaumi Madrasah
Besides the public system of Madrasah education a good number of private institutions' offer
traditional Islamic teaching to Muslim boys and girls. These are known as Furquania
Madrasah,
Hafizi& Madrasah and Quami or NizamiaMadrasah.Furquania Madrasah offer basic
education (maximum l years) on Islam including Arabic language, Quran recitation,
elementary Bengali language and simple arithmatic.Hafizia madrasah is exclusively meant
for 'Hifz' or the memorising of the entire Quran. Children of the earliest possible age group
join these institutions and complete their programmewithin the required period. Mostly these
institutions are residential and attached to a Masjid. Quaumi or Nizamiah Madrasahs arrange
their academic programmeaccording to grades of one year each beginning from Grade I to
Grade XIV. The grades are named in Arabic. The final grades are called Daurah. Certificates
are awarded to the students after successful completion of the 'Daurah' class. Furthermore,
specialized higher courses of 2/3 years duration are also conducted in some of the Quaumi
Madrasah. Traditionally a student obtaining a 'Kamil1 degree of passing the 'Daurah' stage of
Madrafsnh education profit .a title 'Moulana' with their names.
Higher Education in Bangladesh: The Present Scenario
i. General Information
Higher education in the public sector is a legacy of the British colonial educationsystem. At
present there are 80 universities in Bangladesh of which 26 are public and 54are private
universities. Of the public Universities ten are general universities, five areengineering, three
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21. agricultural, five science and technological and one is university of artsand culture, one
affiliating and one offering education only on distance mode. Thenumber of students in the
public universities is around 92,000 excluding those in theaffiliating National University and
Open University offering distance mode education.
The numbers of students in the latter two were 800,000 and 437,500 respectively in theyear
2004-05. Thus at the moment above 1.3 million of populations receive highereducation in
Bangladesh of which 74 percent were male and 26 were female students inthe year 2004. The
percentage of female students enrolling at the universities is on therise (UGC: 2005). Higher
education facilities of the public universities are spread overthe entire country, so that
students of different regions can receive higher educationwithout going very far from their
familiar environment at home. Thus there is at least Onepublic University in all the
administrative divisions of the country.
ii. Structure of Higher Education in Bangladesh
There are 5 types of higher education available in the country. These are: i.General
Education; ii. Science and Technology and Engineering Education; iii. Medical Education; iv.
Agricultural Education; v. Distance Education. In addition, the highereducation sector also
provides Vocational and Madrasha education.
In Bangladesh higher education consists of a 3 year pass-course or a 4 year
honours course for the bachelor‟s degree, followed by a two year Master‟s course forpass
graduates and a one-year Master‟s course for honours graduates.
iii. Number of Students and Teachers in Higher Education
There are just over 1 million students studying at higher education level in thecountry. The
following table shows their composition: the total number of students in thepublic
universities is 112,430 while the affiliating National University (NU) and the
Bangladesh Open University (BOU) have total of 777,492 and 437,500 studentsrespectively.
However, in the BOU only 84,271 are pursuing higher education studies.
MobasserMonem, Hasan Muhammad Baniamin295
The number of teachers in public universities other than NU and BOU is 6,280 ofwhom about
17 percent are absent for different reasons. Leaving aside the absentees, theaverage
student/teacher ratio in the public universities is about 1:18 (UGC :2006).
The number of National University Affiliated colleges in 2001 was 1,297. Therewere 32,278
teachers and 773,492 students in these colleges, which meant a 1:24 teacherstudent ratio. At
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22. present, among the graduate and post-graduate students, 83% werestudying in national
University affiliated colleges and the rest in the public universities(UGC :2006).
Iv. Public Universities in Bangladesh
The area comprising the present Bangladesh was to have no university for a longtime during
the British rule. A teaching cum residential university was set up first inDhaka in 1921. The
second university was set up in Rajshahi in 1953. In total there hadbeen 6 public universities
in the country before 1971. After the liberation of Bangladeshin 1971, during the last 35
years, higher education scenario has greatly been transformed.
The number of public universities has increased significantly. Some key features ofpublic
universities are-
• Enrollment rate has increased over periods
• There has been commensurate expansion of faculty in the universities. Theteacher-student
ratio, on average, has not varied much. On paper, teachersin the universities have better
academic qualification now than before.
There appears to be more publications made by academics now than before.
• The expansion is mostly quantitative. Quality of education has notimproved.
• In general higher education is highly subsidized. In absolute term the extentof subsidy has
been increasing over time.
• In the last decade the share of university allocation to total education revealsa sew-saw
trend with, however, a decreasing trend for last three years.
• The employee-student ratio reveals interesting trend. Against teacherstudent ratio of 1:17 on
average, this ratio is 1:5 on the average.
Public universities are the foremost choice of the majority students seeking highereducation.
This is for various reasons. First, these universities offer wide range ofsubjects in Science,
Commerce, Liberal Arts, Humanities, Engineering and Technology,Law, Education and
Medicine disciplines. Second, public universities attract the bestbrains and researchers as
teachers although monetary compensation for them is anythingfar from attractive. Third,
library, laboratory, internet and research facilities are muchbetter there than anywhere else in
the country. Fourth, seminars, symposiums,workshops, debates, exhibitions and visiting
teachers lecture series are often held in theseinstitutions with a wide scope for national and
international exposures for promisingyoung knowledge seekers. Fifth, residential and
boarding facilities at low cost/subsidizedrates are available in these public universities.
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23. V. Financing Public Universities
Most of the public universities are dependent on government for funding.
However, of the 26 public universities the National University is financially independent
296 Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences Vol. 30, No. 2of the government and very solvent. It
derives its entire fund from students‟ registrationand examination entry fees. The Open
University of Bangladesh can cover about 30% ofits revenue expenses from the fees collected
from its enrollees and the rest is financed bythe Government through the University Grants
Commission of Bangladesh (MahfuzulHuq :2003). The other public universities meet their
needs in the following ways:
Students Tuition Fees and Other Fees:
Public universities cater the educational needs of the thousands of meritoriousstudents at a
nominal cost of TK. 12 (about 20 US cents) per month which has remainedstatic for about the
last 75 years. Thus, it goes without saying that sum does not evencover the cost of collection
and maintenance records. Other incidental fees such asregistration fees, sports, student‟s
union fees and examination fees have, however, increased to a large extent over the years so
as to cover cost and even generate someincome for their universities. But the tuition fees can
not be enhanced due to strongpressure from student‟s union and opposition political parties.
Neither the universityadministration nor the government is keen on taking serious steps to
increase the tuitionfees simply because of the fear of students‟ unrest and opening up a new
front forpolitical opposition.
Government Funding
In the face of the above vis-à-vis a huge rise in costs of university administrationthe
government has to spend a large amount of money for the public universities from thepublic
exchequer every year. About 95 percent of the fund for higher education isprovided by the
government while a maximum of 5 percent on average are generated bythe universities from
their own resources.
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24. The table indicates that expenditure per head varies from year to year and types ofpublic
universities. Thus, average expenditure for medical students and agriculturalscientists has
been the highest (Tk.154,430 and Tk. 87,761 respectively) particularlybecause of fewer
number of students vis-à-vis high fixed costs while for generaluniversities the average
expenditure is rather low. Against the per head tuition fees of lessthan 150 (about 2.5 US
dollars) per year released from the students this sum of publicexpenditure appears to be
colossal in the backdrop of a poor country like Bangladesh.
Yet, tertiary education receives inadequate importance in the public budget. This is truefor
both revenue and development allocations. While education is of all types of has
MobasserMonem, Hasan Muhammad Baniamin297received the highest priority in the budget
allocation (about 10-11 percent of totalrevenue budget), funding for university/higher
education has never reached even 1% oftotal revenue budget allocation during the last 10
years.
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25. One striking feature of the revenue expenditure on education is that about 71% ofthe fund
allocated for education was spent on teachers‟ salaries, pension and fringebenefits, 16% on
general contingency and the rest 13% only was available for educationcontingency in 2003-
2004.
Fund Allocation for Education (2003-04)
Yet, more surprising is the fact that only a tiny percentage of fund is allocated forresearch.
Thus in the year 2001-2002 only 29 million taka out of 3,773 million taka wasearmarked for
research and this is certainly a low percentage compared to the developedcountries
(MahfuzulHuq :2003).
Since the close of the last century the public universities started facing hugeamount of deficit
in revenue budget. Thus in the year 2002-03 it was observed that 11older universities in the
public sector had an estimated deficit of around Tk. 100 corers.
Most part of this deficit is accountable to inadequate release of fund in the revenuebudget by
the government vis-à-vis the demand by the universities to the Government (placed through
the University Grants Commission).
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26. Chapter 3
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT)
The five-year plan documents provide an account of the elusive search for attainment of
unfulfilled promises. The developmental strategy of Bangladesh has moved from
reconstruction of a war-devastated country to building physical infrastructure and to
increased emphasis on social sector development. Various recent discussions about
development plans, strategies and outcomes have suggested strengths and weaknesses of the
Bangladesh society and the economy, which are summarized below, applying a framework of
strength weaknesses- opportunities-threats (SWOT) analysis.
I. Strength
a) Bangladesh has established a unique national identity through the historical process of its
evolution.
b) Bangladesh is a more homogeneous and less differentiated society than others in the
region.
c) The people of Bangladesh have displayed remarkable resilience to survive amidst natural
and manmade disasters.
d) Although there remains a long way to go, women in Bangladesh have become more visible
and active in the public arena, participative and capable of making themselves heard.
e) Bangladesh has gained valuable experience of social development, especially through non-
governmental initiatives.
f) A new generation has emerged which is achievement-oriented, alert to global trends and
influences, and seeks opportunities for development.
II. Weaknesses
a) In a condition of adverse people-resource ratio and human capital ill-endowed with
knowledge and creative capabilities, workers are not able to absorb and adapt new productive
techniques rapidly; this has made it difficult to break out of the “below poverty level
equilibrium”.
b) Per capita investment in human resource is low and the production system as a whole has
not been imbued with a culture of efficiency.
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27. c) Dependency ratio is high, putting pressure on many income-earners eking out a subsistence
living, which has made it difficult to ensure basic security for families and generate adequate
surplus for investment.
III. Opportunity
a) Bangladesh has a conscious polity with articulate and vocal media and the civil society;
social mobilization on critical development issues in recent years has been noteworthy.
b) Bangladesh has taken some steps in moving from a highly regulated and bureaucracy-
controlled management of the economy towards a more open and incentive-based system.
c) Bangladesh today has an integrated domestic market and price response is rapid, though
monopolistic pricing in some situations cannot be ruled out.
d) Importance of education and its contribution to value addition in the global market is well
recognized; and the scope for further value addition in diverse areas remains unexplored.
IV. Threat
a) Globalization has caught Bangladesh productive sectors on the wrong foot. Policy package
to address the adverse consequences, particularly those affecting the marginalized and the
poor is not in place, creating imbalance in the capacity to access opportunities equitably.
Unless a comprehensive price, income, wage and employment policies with attendant change
in human development and institutional support system is developed, ad hoc reform measures
are likely to create disruption and penalize the poor further.
b) Highly centralized, non-transparent and non-participatory decision making and
negotiations on matters of vital public interest is compounded by a weak accountability
system. The consequence is a quagmire of ill-fated enterprises with voices of the people
unheard and disaffection high. This situation produces skepticism and a negative or passive
response in place of the positive and proactive attitudes essential for participatory
development.
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28. Chapter 4
Problem and prospect of Job Market
Problems:
1. [LOW PER CAPITA INCOME] Poor economic condition is considered to be the main
reason for poor life insurance penetration in Bangladesh. The country has a very low per
capita income and over 50% of our total population lives below the poverty line. Inability to
save or negligible savings by a vast majority of population kept them away from the horizon
of life insurance.
2. [POOR KNOWLEDGE OF AGENTS] The marketing of insurance is greatly hampered in
the remote village of Bangladesh where the agents are appointed from respected locality. This
is because; educated young people are seemed to be reluctant to become insurance agents.
Therefore, persons finding no job or persons having lesser knowledge become insurance
agents whom cannot acquaint themselves fully with the whereabouts of insurance. Such
agents cannot play efficient role in convincing a prospective policyholder.
3. [ILLETERACY] Mass illiteracy is another factor that adversely affects the marketing of
insurance. About 70% of the population is floating in the sea of ignorance. Illiteracy leads
one to think that the insurance is deception; it is no value in life. They cannot think rationality
because they do not know what is insurance and what its importance as security for future.
4. [LOW AWARENESS] Insurance awareness is poor. Agents are not skilled enough. These
agents cannot perform their job properly to make the people aware of life insurance.
5. [LOW SAVINGS] People of Bangladesh have a very small saving potentially and thus
have less or no disposable income. Almost the whole of the income is exhausted in the
process of maintaining the day-to-day life. Thus they are left with little amount, which may
not deemed to sufficient for the payment of premiums. This factor discourages many to buy
life insurance policy.
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29. 6. [LACK OF CONTINUITY] Discontinuation of insurance policy is found higher. This also
adversely affects the market efficiency of insurance business.
7. [SHORTAGE OF FUND] Most of the policyholders cannot continue their policies owing
to price spiral and shortage of fund.
8. [RESTRICTION] Another important reason for discontinuation is restriction investment
allowance by the government relating to income tax.
9. [POOR SERVICES TO CONSUMERS] An important reason for the dismal performance
of insurance business in Bangladesh is poor client services provided by the insurance
companies. The public image of service from life insurance institutions is very poor.
10. [LACK OF NEW PRODUCT] in a dynamic life insurance market, one can expect to see
new product coming out every now and then. But still today one can hardly see any new
product in the insurance market in Bangladesh.
Prospects:
There should be vigorous campaign throughout the country to make the people aware of the
utility and prospects of buying insurance. Bangladesh is a densely populated country and
most of the people in our country are poor. They would definitively go for insurance for the
security and the risks covered by the insurance. Therefore, the prospects of Insurance are very
high in Bangladesh if the following measures can be adopted.
First of all, there is no alternative of quality service. Insurance being a service rendering
entity must provide quick services. Policyholders are highly dissatisfied with service of JBC
and SBC. Due to poor quality services, public corporations are losing market. In order to
ensure their continuity, such corporation must pay adequate attention on their quality of
service. Private companies also need put their all-out efforts to improve quality of service so
as to strengthen their position.
Secondly, the government should eliminate the difficulty in licensing procedure and should
not delay in the approval of new companies if all the requirements are fulfilled. It will help
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30. not only to increase volume of business but also solve the problems of unemployment.
Finally, the policy holders are very much worried about the settlement of claims. Ordinary
people also consider it main constraint. Therefore, instance companies should settle the
claims as quickly as possible to create a healthy public image. For this purpose the claim
settlement procedure can be simplified and the insurers can provide proper written guidelines
of claim settlement to the policyholders.
If the above steps can be taken, more and more people in Bangladesh will be interested in
buying insurance.
Problem and prospect of education system
Problem
Funding going to the right places
Short supply of teachers, high student/teacher ratio
Terribly inaccurate textbooks
Selective and not all information taught due to political purposes
Lack of involvement from parents
Lack of discipline from parents and teachers
Decreasing moral and ethical standards
Elimination of essential extra-curricular, arts, music and Phys Ed programs
Lower academic standards
Teachers unions
Lack of national achievement standards
Tenure and seniority rules that make it difficult to recruit, retain, and train new blood
Generally not fantastic teaching of math and science fundamentals
Advancement of students to the next grade level even if they haven‟t got a grasp of
anything they learned at the current level
No coherent policies across the board to deal with our tremendous diversity of
language and culture
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31. Stereotypical expectations within society that only perpetuate the vicious cycle of
underachievement for certain groups of kids
Not enough hours in school, compared to many other developed countries
A one-size-fits-all model of teaching, but this isn‟t unique to the United States
We don‟t teach kids to value learning and sharing information for its own sake. We
teach them to value good grades
Prospect
 trust between school and district and between principal and faculty
 clear, uncomplicated missions and strong, largely site-managed, problem-solving
organizations
 The ability to use, manage, understand, and assess technology
 A specified amount of time set aside every day for homework can help the child
better understands. Often working class parents have neither the time nor the
knowledge to help their children with their homework. By providing time for
homework during the school day, students who are not receiving the help they need
at home are able to receive supplemental instruction.
 Keeping the same teachers for a few years or having separate schools within schools
can strengthen relationships. This program allows children and parents to become
more familiar with teachers and to form stronger bonds. By strengthening the student
and teacher relationship, students are able to receive more guidance from their
teachers and grow more comfortable, which may be a lacking opportunity in the
home.
 The setting of daily goals can help children learn how to face challenges and
deadlines. By setting the goals in writing at the beginning of every day or week,
children learn how to manage and prioritize tasks in order to feel a sense of
achievement when the goals are met.
 Adopting parental education program to enlighten them on the physical and
nutritional
 requirements of children, especially as to how satisfactory nutrition can be provided
even with
 Limitedmeans and how to mould attitude, behavior and character of the children in a
positive way.
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32.  Giving recognition to the informal 'baby classes' attached to primary schools and
equip them
 Gradually with necessary equipment, furniture and part-time teachers.
 Developing suitable pre-school curricula and learning tools.
 Developing special teacher training courses and making arrangements for the training
of the
 Teachers concerned.
 Promoting appropriate changes in educational systems at kindergartens, play groups,
maktabs,
 feeder schools, orphanages, etc, to make them more relevant to the needs of children
in Bangladesh
 Society.
 Conducting studies and research, undertaking experimental and pilot projects, and at
the same time,
 Continuing evaluation of on-going programs to learn more on ECCE activities.
Chapter 5
Conclusion and recommendations
Considering various positive impacts of pre-school education, cost-effective strategies along
the following lines need to be considered:
Organizing community based parenting education for holistic development of
children and mothersthrough existing credit groups, mothers‟ clubs, health centers,
etc.
Organizing community based learning centers for 3-5 years old children through
active participationby parents and older primary graduates of the community.
The community, assisted by Parent-Teacher Association, School Managing
Committee, UnionParishad, and local government may take the financial
responsibility of the centers and the programs.
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33. Parenting education and Early Childhood Care and Education programs should be
planned in amanner so that one complements the other, thus ensuring greater benefits
for children.
Schools should be given freedom to manage pre-primary education on their own. The
schools,especially in rural areas, should be helped to devise ways of doing so at the
local level. Governmentassistance in the form of training and learning materials
would be useful and cost-effective.
Advocacy and social mobilization for creating demands for child care, education and
development isneeded.
Research, especially, small scale action research and studies may be undertaken in
order to developculturally relevant models of community and school based pre-
primary, child care and parentingeducation programs.
In brief, performance of children in formal primary and later levels of education is influenced
by the quality of preparation before schooling by children. A well designed pre-school
education for all children will bring positive change in the present scenario of primary
education of Bangladesh and would be a major contribution to achieving the EFA goal.
As we have seen, the labor force participation over the year increases but job opportunitydoes
not increase in such a way that the country can absorb all the additional labor force. Sothe
focal point is to create the job opportunities. Keeping this in mind the policy shouldinclude
the following strategies:
• Since the underemployment rate in very high, especially in the rural area and (as wehave
seen) RNF sector has the prospect to absorb the unskilled and semi-skilled laborforce, so the
government should undertake specific policy measure to induce the RNFsector. For this, rural
infrastructure should be developed. As the SMEs‟ (small andmedium enterprises) production
technique is especially labor intensive, so providingloan, training and other facility
government can strengthen SMEs.
• Government may introduce work-sharing program and fix maximum working hoursthat will
reduce unemployment, underemployment rate in some extent.
• As the demand for labor is derived demand, if the government can accelerate theeconomic
growth rate using the macroeconomic components, labor demand willincrease as well.
• Government may take proper step to encourage the labor force to migrate overseas.
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34. This procedure may induce the GNP growth rate that will lead to further jobopportunity in
the country.
• As we have found that import-export ratio and unskilled labor demand is negativelyrelated,
hence, if the government takes initiatives to improve the trade balance, it willgenerate more
job opportunities.
• Investment in the service sector and manufacturing sector should be encouraged.
Government should take proper step to prevent the capital flight to overseas. We havefound
that as the number of factory rises, labor demand also rises.
21
• ILO studies suggest that governments ought consistently to incorporate the use of
“labor-based” rather than “equipment-based” production procedure in the publicinvestment
policy (Islam, 2005)
• As the reservation wage of the labor in Bangladesh is very low, Bangladeshgovernment
may urge foreign investors to invest in Bangladesh.
• Since the influence of demand determinants on the demand of skilled and unskilledlabor
force is different, so policymaker must consider these features.
After all not only the government of Bangladesh, but also NGOs as well as
otherorganizations such as political, social, national and international should jointly or
separatelytake proper steps to eradicate poverty, unemployment and underemployment as
well.
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