1. The document discusses the issue of sexual violence against children in conflict. It highlights that children, especially girls, often make up the majority of survivors. 2. It notes the catastrophic physical, psychological, and social impacts on victims, including serious injuries, sexually transmitted infections, unintended pregnancy, and social stigma. 3. The document calls on the international community to prioritize prevention and response efforts to sexual violence against children in conflict through funding, legal reforms, empowering communities, and ensuring accountability.

1. Unspeakable Crimes
Against Children
Sexual violence
in conflict

2. Unspeakable Crimes
Against Children
Sexual violence in conflict

3. Save the Children works in more than 120 countries.
We save children’s lives. We fight for their rights.
We help them fulfil their potential.
Acknowledgements
Written by Véronique Aubert with Alison Holder and contributions from Yvonne Agengo,
Saba Al Mobaslat, Safiullah Amarkhail, Michel Anglade, Dia Abu Mosleh, Lucy Batchelor,
Bill Bell, Annie Bodmer-Roy, Roberta Cecchetti, Roger Davila, Nadja Dolata, Emily Echessa,
Clare Feinstein, Asmara Figue, Karen Flanagan, Marcela Forero, Isabel Gomez, George
Graham, Henrik Halvardsson, Duncan Harvey, Christophe Hodder, Ashley Jones,
Salma Kahale, Heather Kerr, Ruba Khoury, Rachel Maranto, Christine McCormick, Rob
McGillivray, Marion McKeone, Elin Martinez, Karen Mets, Jennifer Moorehead, Helen Mould,
Lalitha Mylvaganam, Nastasia Paul-Gera, Ned Olney, Asa Olsson, Laura Ossa, Lisa Parrott,
Laura Payne, Hiba Qaraman, Katie Seaborne, Ylva Sperling, Hanne Stevens, John Sullivan,
Nadine Theabeurey, Katy Webley, David Wright, Jumanah Zabaneh, Serena Zanella,
Olivia Zinzan and many other colleagues across Save the Children.
Please note: This report contains distressing reports and quotes from children affected
by sexual violence in conflict. All names throughout the report have been changed to
protect identities.
Published by
Save the Children
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First published 2013
© The Save the Children Fund 2013
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Scotland (SC039570). Registered Company No. 178159
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prior permission for teaching purposes, but not for resale. For copying in any other
circumstances, prior written permission must be obtained from the publisher, and a fee
may be payable.
Cover photo: Emma was raped by an armed soldier on her way to work in the fields.
She’s 12. Emma didn’t get medical assistance after she was attacked because fighting in
the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo made it unsafe to travel to the health clinic.
(Photo: Save the Children)
Typeset by Grasshopper Design Company
Printed by Page Bros Ltd

4. contents
Executive summary v
Part 1: Understanding sexual violence
against children in conflict 1
1 What is the scale of the problem? 2
2 Who suffers sexual violence in conflict? 4
3 Where does it happen? 5
4 Who are the perpetrators? 9
5 Why does it happen? 10
6 What is the impact on children? 15
Part 2: Preventing and responding to
sexual violence against children 19
1 The Deliver–Empower–Change–Reform model 20
Deliver comprehensive child-centred services 20
Empower children and their communities (especially women and girls) 23
Change social norms to reduce the likelihood of sexual violence against children 24
Reform laws and institutions and build political will to prevent and respond to sexual violence 25
2 Gaps in funding for protection in emergencies 29
Conclusion 36
What we’re calling for 37
Endnotes 38

5. photo :
katie
seaborne /
save
the
children
Madeleine, 16
Madeleine and her older sister were me and my sister but I didn’t understand because
taken from their home in a village in the they were speaking in another language. A soldier
Democratic Republic of Congo by two took my sister away. Another soldier then took me
soldiers. They were forced to walk for four and raped me. I was thinking, ‘Will I ever be able
hours and then raped. to go home again? Maybe I’ll get pregnant. If I do
– what will happen? What will I do?’
“Two soldiers came to our house. They had guns
and they stole all the money we had. “After that they took me back to my sister and
let us go. I was very upset and in a lot of pain.
“Then they took me and my sister and told us
they were going to kill us. My parents couldn’t “I haven’t told my friends. I don’t know how they
do anything because the soldiers had guns. I was would react. Maybe I would get a bad reputation
so scared. in my village. But my family knows and they
support me.
“They walked me and my sister in silence into
the bush. It took four hours and they were hitting “It has happened to other girls. When there is
us with their guns to make us walk faster. It was conflict, women and girls suffer a lot. We must
night-time. I kept falling over in the mud because teach the government and the leaders so that the
it was so dark. soldiers don’t do these things.”
“We arrived at their place in the bush. There were
other soldiers there. They were saying things to

6. Executive summary
“I can’t forget what happened. My head is full of children, teachers, religious leaders, peacekeepers and
these things – what happened to my friends, my humanitarian staff – trusted people from all walks of
family. It’s not peaceful in my head.” life. In countries where women and girls are already
– Aissatou,1 aged 15, reflecting on events in Mali in early 20122
heavily discriminated against, young girls face the
greatest threat. They are particularly exposed to high
“I want to tell the world that we need peace – levels of rape, but also early or forced marriage and
stop the war. We need to make sure children and unintended pregnancy. Although less apparent, sexual
women are protected. People who rape need to violence against boys is also common. Both girls and
be arrested.” boys are often reluctant to report the crime, because
– Félicité, aged 13, who was raped in the Democratic Republic of Congo of the social stigma and fear of retribution.
after being displaced from her village in December 20123
High levels of sexual violence plague children in
Sexual violence is one of the most horrific crimes post-conflict situations, too, as they are subjected to
committed during conflict. No one should have to violations including sexual abuse, sexual exploitation
endure the pain and humiliation of rape and sexual and trafficking.
exploitation and violence, and it is particularly
deplorable when a child is subjected to this brutality. The impact of sexual violence on children is
catastrophic – physically, psychologically and socially.
The prevalence in conflict of sexual violence against Children who have been victims of sexual violence
children is shocking. Save the Children’s research and are often left with serious physical injuries, which can
programming experience indicates that girls especially be particularly severe because their growing bodies
but also boys under the age of 18 often make up the are not yet fully developed. Damage to children’s
majority of survivors of sexual violence in conflict and reproductive systems can leave them incontinent,
conflict-affected countries; sometimes more than 80% infertile and condemned to a lifetime of bleeding and
of those affected by sexual violence are children.4 pain. They are at high risk of contracting sexually
In countries across the world where Save the transmitted infections, including syphilis, gonorrhoea
Children works – Afghanistan, Colombia, Côte and HIV. Girls who become pregnant can suffer
d’Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Jordan, life-threatening complications during childbirth, will
Lebanon, Mali, Myanmar (Burma), the occupied often be forced to drop out of school, and can face
Palestinian territory, Somalia, South Sudan and Syria social exclusion and stigmatisation. Their chances
– and in refugee camps, including those in Ethiopia for further education, livelihoods and marriage may
and Kenya, thousands of girls and boys are subject to be severely diminished or completely eliminated,
sexual violence. condemning them to a lifetime of extreme poverty
and increased vulnerability to further exploitation.
Sexual violence may be committed by armed groups, For the thousands of children who survive sexual
gangs and/or governmental armed forces. Children are violence, the key priority is to try to recover from
also victims of sexual violence in detention and are the trauma. Too often, however, there is little or no
recruited and/or used by armed forces and groups for appropriate response to their needs, and this deepens
sexual purposes. They may become the ‘property’ of their suffering immeasurably. Even worse, we know a
one or more fighters, to whom they provide sexual great deal about how to protect children from sexual
services, or act as ‘wives’ to individual fighters. violence, even in emergencies, but lack of political will
But sexual violence in times of war is also committed and funding means we aren’t always able to put in
by family members, community members, other place sufficient programming.
v

7. In 2013 there is a historic opportunity to change the When we consider the problem of sexual violence
unspeakable crimes against children
way the world thinks about sexual violence in conflict: in conflict from the perspective of children, it also
during its leadership of the G8, the UK government becomes clear that preventing sexual violence from
(and Foreign Secretary William Hague in particular) has becoming widespread in conflict in the first place
made a commitment to prioritise the issue of sexual should be at the top of our priority list. Preventive
violence in conflict. William Hague has described sexual measures include a wide range of activities, from
violence in conflict as “our generation’s slave trade”: a providing adequate lighting in refugee camps, building
complex issue that was once seen to be unsolvable but toilets inside camps and buildings and ensuring access
was eventually addressed with the help of concerted to education and shelter, to securing a change in
international action. attitudes and behaviours by tackling discrimination
against women and girls.
But there is a danger that even with this welcome
leadership, the opportunity to make real progress
2 Fund the protection of children
on the ground will be missed unless we address the
and the prevention of violence
specific challenges facing children. We are calling on
the G8 countries to take the following action: In spite of increasing international attention to the
issue of sexual violence in conflict, there remains
1 Place children at the centre of international a severe lack of funding and political priority for
action on sexual violence in conflict preventing and responding to sexual violence (and
other protection concerns) on the ground in conflict-
Children, and especially girls, often make up the
affected countries. Our analysis shows, for example,
majority of survivors of sexual violence in conflict, but
that only 22% of humanitarian funding needs for the
their particular needs are too frequently neglected.
protection sector were met in 2011. This should be
To ensure that this doesn’t happen, we are calling
seen as essential, not optional, and receive the same
on the G8 countries to place children at the centre
level of priority as other sectors such as food, shelter
of international action on sexual violence in conflict.
Humanitarian funding by sector in 2011
Funding needs Commitments/ % Gap between
($US) contributions funding and
($US) commitments
1 Food 2,848,202,388 2,257,011,715 79 591,190,673
2 Coordination and support services 603,597,993 392,401,072 65 211,196,921
3 Health 1,228,381,112 787,218,660 64 441,162,452
4 Safety and security of staff and operations 7,270,516 4,099,367 56 3,171,149
5 Agriculture 771,350,586 384,924,176 50 386,426,410
6 Water and sanitation 745,971,596 340,419,671 46 405,551,925
8 Multi-sector 999,783,070 451,601,069 45 548,182,001
7 Education 305,981,906 136,518,374 45 169,463,532
10 Mine action 62,715,909 25,476,855 41 37,239,054
11 Shelter and non-food items 399,089,308 147,445,839 37 251,643,469
12 Economic recovery and infrastructure 305,978,894 88,709,973 29 217,268,921
13 Protection/human rights/rule of law 639,040,697 140,709,422 22 498,331,275
15 Sector not specified – 486,926,155 N/A 486,926,155
Total 8,917,363,975 5,643,462,348
Average
48
vi

8. and water. Save the Children’s experience shows that laws and policies relevant to rape and sexual violence
Ex
sexual violence is not an inevitable part of conflict and to ensure that international criminal law as
and that barriers can be built between children codified in the Rome Statute is incorporated into
and violence. When sufficient funding and priority national law. G8 countries should also assist efforts
ecutive
is attached to the protection sector, programmes at documenting sexual violence, for example, by
across what we call the Deliver–Empower–Change– making available expert investigators, with a view to
Reform5 spectrum can prevent and respond to sexual ensuring accountability.
violence in ways that address the particular needs and
summary
vulnerabilities of children. We are therefore also calling 4 Ensure the UN has the mandate, capacity
on G8 countries to ensure that funding to protect children and resources to play its role in protecting
is prioritised in every humanitarian response. children from sexual violence
UN peacekeeping troops, for example, must have
3 End impunity for sexual violence a clear mandate to provide effective protection
against children to civilians, and must prioritise the protection and
In contexts where state authority has collapsed promotion of children’s rights. The UK is currently
due to conflict, laws are no longer enforced and the lead on the UN Security Council on protection
combatants or civilians can commit sexual violence, of civilians, and therefore has a particular window of
usually with complete impunity. Prosecutions for opportunity to influence now. Also, the coordination
sexual violence in conflict affected countries are not mechanisms of the UN that can play a role in
prioritised on either global or national levels, and preventing sexual violence in conflict are chronically
survivors face many hurdles in seeking accountability. under-financed. With minimal additional resources,
G8 countries should exert maximum pressure on the UN coordination mechanisms could work more
governments and/or armed groups to respect their effectively to prevent sexual violence in conflict from
obligations under international humanitarian and human becoming widespread. G8 countries should ensure that
rights law, by immediately halting all acts of rape and all parts of the UN that can play a role in preventing
other sexual violence and recruitment or use of children, and responding to sexual violence in conflict have the
and to ensure that perpetrators are brought to justice; necessary resources, skills and political backing to tackle
by ratifying the Rome Statute of the International the issue.
Criminal Court (ICC); and by strengthening national
vii

9. photo :
paul
smith /
save
the
children
Sandra, 15
Sandra lives in an area of a city in Colombia “The next day my mother was helping me take a
that is known for the presence of armed bath and there was blood. My mother asked me
groups, conflict and violence. When Sandra what had happened so I told her everything. We
was five she was raped by her uncle. reported my uncle. He was captured and put in
jail but then he escaped. Now he is in the streets.
“I have lived here for 13 years and every day
there is more conflict, more trouble for children. “It’s very difficult to explain to you how it makes
Before they used to respect children but now you feel. The school helped me with psychological
they don’t care whether they’re children, babies, help but I still haven’t confronted it completely.
pregnant mothers – they still kill them. I can’t forget it. I try to feel the same way as
other children but it’s difficult.”
“And it’s common that gang members rape girls.
For the past two years, Sandra has been
“I have been raped. I was five years old. My
attending a project supported by Save the
mother was working and my father too and my
Children, where children learn about their
older sister was studying. So I was with my uncle.
rights and have opportunities to express
He gave dinner to my two little sisters but he
themselves through writing, drawing, dance,
didn’t give me dinner. We went to bed – me with
theatre and music.
my sisters but I couldn’t sleep so he took me to
his room. He raped me.

10. part 1
Understanding
sexual violence
against children
in conflict
During conflict and instability, children6 are exceptionally vulnerable to a wide
range of human rights abuses and protection risks: separation from their families;
detention; forced displacement; torture; lack of food and shelter; lack of access to
health and education services; abduction; recruitment and use by armed forces or
groups; rape, and sexual abuse and exploitation.
Sexual violence is defined for the purposes of this report as any act, attempt
or threat of a sexual nature that results, or is likely to result, in the physical,
psychological or emotional harm of an individual, including sexual abuse and
sexual exploitation. This includes rape, incest, harassment, forced prostitution,
sexual slavery and sex trafficking.7

11. 1 What is the scale
of the problem?
When we consider that 75–95% of rapes are • In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in
never reported to the police in England, it 8 2008, the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) recorded
should come as no surprise that we know 16,000 cases of sexual violence against women and
little about the full extent of sexual violence girls. Nearly 65% of cases involved children, mostly
adolescent girls. An estimated 10% of victims in
committed in conflict and post-conflict settings.
this period were children less than ten years old.
16
The problem of sexual violence against children is • In 2009 in Colombia, more than half of the victims
enough of a scourge even in countries that are not of sexual violence helped by the International
conflict-affected: the UN estimates that up to 50% of Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in one
sexual assaults worldwide are committed against girls programme were children.17
aged under 16.9 One of the few global studies of the • In the Central African Republic, nearly half of
sexual abuse of children across a number of countries gender-based violence survivors who received
– mostly rich countries that are not experiencing support from the IRC were girls under the age
conflict – found that 21.2% of females and 10.7% of of 18.18
males were victims of sexual abuse between the ages • Almost one-fifth of girls in Haiti’s capital
of zero to 18; this means an average of nearly 16% Port-au-Prince were raped during an armed
of all children.10 If we apply these global child sexual rebellion in 2004 and 2005.19
abuse prevalence rates just to the population of • During the post-election crisis in Côte d’Ivoire
children living in conflict-affected countries, we can between 1 November 2010 and 30 September
estimate that nearly 30 million children have been or 2011, children made up 51.7% of cases of sexual
will be sexually abused before their 18th birthday.11 violence. In more than half of the cases of sexual
And it may well be more. violence against children, the survivors were
below 15 years of age.20
The few figures available and Save the Children’s
experience in conflict-affected countries indicate that
children – especially girls but also boys – often make
up the majority of survivors of sexual violence in
conflict-affected countries.12 In some cases, more aissatou21
than 80% of those affected by sexual violence in
conflict-affected countries are children: Aissatou (aged 15, Mali) remembers the day
• In Sierra Leone, more than 70% of the sexual the rebels first entered her town and raped her
violence cases seen by the International Rescue friend Ines:
Committee (IRC) were girls under 18, and more “The rebels went into the village and took girls – not
than 20% of those were girls under 11.13 Another women, but girls. They were 15, 16, 17. They said they
estimate from the conflict period estimates that needed the girls to go and prepare food for them.
as many as 215,000 to 257,000 Sierra Leonean They took them into their cars and brought them into
women and girls may have been subjected to the bush. They left them in the bush after they had
sexual violence.14 finished raping them – but they beat them before
• In post-conflict Liberia, 83% of survivors of gender- leaving. I know because my friend was one of them.
based violence in 2011–12 were younger than 17, There were 16 girls in total. My friend’s name is Ines;
and almost all of these cases involved rape.15 she is 15 now. She was 14 then, like me – we went to
school together.” 22
2

12. Why is it so difficult to have accurate statistics about Weaknesses in international
1 W
sexual violence in conflict? Part of the problem is data collection
the sensitive nature of the issue of sexual violence
hat is
in all cultures, and the especially extreme sensitivity There are significant weaknesses in data collection at
in some countries. Across the world, the taboo the international level too.26 In general, the data that
against acknowledging sexual violence is constant does exist is not disaggregated by age and excludes
the
and prevalent. In some countries, survivors of the experiences of younger children. Data on men
sexual violence may be ostracised, punished or even and boys is particularly rare.
scale
criminalised because of what happened to them, as we
Existing data collection initiatives, such as the GBVIMS
of
have seen in Afghanistan, where children and women
who report being victims of sexual violence have been (Gender-Based Violence Information Management
the
accused of crimes and publicly stoned or punished,23 System), need greater funding and more support.
and where a boy, aged 13, was charged with ‘moral More international organisations and UN agencies
crimes’ after being raped.24 should support the GBVIMS and not create new
or parallel data collection systems. The information
problem ?
“We will never take our case to [officials], because they gathered by the GBVIMS could be made more
will never support us, nor will elders ever assist us in accessible at the international level (it is currently
addressing issues of violence.” managed at the individual country level), and
– a participant in a Save the Children focus group discussion synthesised data (ie, that not at risk of compromising
(December 2012) with refugees who have fled Somalia
the security or identity of any individual survivors)
could be made more available for policy and
advocacy purposes.
Weaknesses in reporting
mechanisms at country level Other existing data collection efforts could also
better cover the issue of sexual violence against
While under-reporting of sexual violence is a significant children. UNICEF’s Multiple Indicator Cluster
issue for all survivors, the barriers to reporting Surveys (MICS) could expand the questions asked
violence against children may be even more significant. to incorporate data on sexual violence against
The lack of age-appropriate reporting mechanisms and children. The Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS)
child- and youth-focused services means that very few programme does ask a series of questions about
child survivors are recorded or assisted. sexual violence, but the youngest girls to whom these
questions are put are over the age of 15.
Many survivors lack information and awareness of
where to report sexual violence cases and where to
access services. Some services might not recognise
children’s particular vulnerabilities and needs – which
are different for boys, girls and adolescents – as
well as their levels of physical, cognitive and social
development, and tend to be better suited to the
needs of adult women. The stigma attached to sexual
violence means that girls and boys affected may be
unlikely to report.
“People have to report the things that happen. Can you
imagine if no one had seen what that man was doing
to my daughter? She might never have told me.”
– Maria, recounting the rape of her five-year-old daughter Diana in
Colombia by a stranger in a village they were visiting25
3

13. 2 Who suffers sexual
violence in conflict?
Adolescent27 and younger girls are recognised The prevalence and consequences of sexual
as the main victims of sexual violence against violence against boys during armed conflict, as well
children. Adolescent girls constitute one as in pre- and post-conflict situations, must not be
of the groups most at risk on account of underestimated. In the DRC, for example, men and
boys make up an estimated 4–10% of the survivors
their physical development and age. They
of sexual violence who seek treatment.29 Another
are particularly exposed to high levels of
study in DRC found that 9% of all men (and 22%
sexual violence such as rape, but also sexual of all women) surveyed reported having directly
exploitation, early or forced marriage, and experienced sexual violence during the conflict.30
unintended pregnancy. But very young girls
and boys and even babies are not immune to Even though sexual violence against men and boys
sexual violence. has been increasingly recognised by the international
community during the last decade and there is a
“A man who was from another place was there and he growing body of literature on the subject, the issue
saw the children. He took my daughter and raped her. of sexual violence against boys in particular remains
Nobody saw him. My husband’s brother realised this largely overlooked.
was happening and took my daughter from this man.
She was screaming and crying. At first, nobody in the Sexism and socio-cultural attitudes in pre-conflict
family knew.” situations influence and determine vulnerability to
sexual violence, abuse and exploitation in time of war.
– Maria, recounting the rape of her five-year-old daughter
Diana in Colombia, while visiting family in another village28
4

14. 3 Where does it happen?
Children caught up “The rebels were raping women… In [one area] they
in active conflict took two girls: one was 13 and the other was 14…
Then they took a 15-year-old… There were 15 or 16
During periods of armed conflict, levels of violence of them [men]. The one who was 13 died because they
facing children are greatly increased, and places where beat her so badly.”
children previously felt safe become targets for attack. – Barakissa, aged 29, describing the abduction and
collective rape of young girls in Mali32
Children can be attacked on the roads, in the fields,
inside their homes, in schools or on their way to or Moreover, it is generally reported that in most armed
from school, as they walk with their families to attend conflicts, sexual violence is occurring throughout the
religious gatherings, or when they are seeking food, country, even in areas where the level of conflict
water or firewood. is lower.
“Three girls were walking to the market… They were “My major responsibilities were washing clothes,
three friends: the oldest one was 18… the middle cleaning, carrying firewood, spying and messenger.
one was 16, and the youngest was 14… The rebels There was one more responsibility which I didn’t like
grabbed the girls and took them with them… Three at all and I don’t want to remember. I was raped
days later, they brought the girls back and left them every night by different commanders. I still remember
in front of their homes… The girls said that there the day when I was raped the first time. I was raped
were many men there. They treated them badly, until three times that night. I started feeling that all the
they were exhausted. They couldn’t see how many things being said about freedom were fake. I wanted to
men there were; they said it was hard to count in that escape from them but didn’t get chance.”
state… I saw the blood on their clothes. They could – Amita, remembering the three years she spent (from
barely walk… The oldest one, Djeneba, started getting the age of 13) with a Maoist militia in Nepal33
sick not long after, and throwing up… That’s when
During armed conflict, children are also particularly
they found out she was pregnant… She lost her baby
vulnerable to abduction, recruitment and/or use by
at six months. Since then, she’s been sick… It was nine
armed forces and groups. Both boys and girls are used
months ago that this happened, and she’s only starting
by armed forces and groups for sexual purposes, a
to get better now.”
trend which is prevalent across a range of conflict-
– Aminata, aged 27, describing the rape of three girls during the
conflict in Mali. They were grabbed on their way to the market.31
affected countries, including Colombia, the DRC,
South Sudan and Afghanistan. Children often become
Sexual violence against a child, including rape, may the ‘property’ of one or more fighters and are
be accompanied by beatings, threats or other acts forced to provide sexual services for them. Children
of torture, and household possessions or goods that may also attach themselves to individual fighters or
children might be carrying may be looted. The child or commanders as a self-protection strategy.
other family members may even be killed.
Sexual violence and abuse of children does not stop
Collective rape of adolescents and younger girls can when the fighting ends, including for those who
also happen, and rural populations are particularly have been associated with armed forces or groups.
vulnerable to attack. Typically, groups attack a village, Continuing contact with or control by combatants
killing civilians and raping women, girls and boys, can result in girls’ involvement in exploitative,
before making off with the community’s cattle, tools commercial sex or forced prostitution. Girls who
or clothing, and sometimes setting fire to the houses. have borne children while with armed groups face
5

15. additional challenges when attempting to reintegrate of assistance is far below international standards. As
unspeakable crimes against children
into their families and communities, risking rejection we are seeing through Save the Children’s response
of themselves or of their children. As a result, to the crisis, this particularly affects girls: the
adolescent girls may feel they have no choice conditions that families are living in are cramped,
but to settle outside their communities of origin. allowing girls in particular little privacy. Girls are often
Despite a focus on community-based interventions afraid to leave their shelter at night: the alarming
in reintegration programmes, such girls may miss presence of armed men means that fear of sexual
important socio-economic support, which in turn may violence is pervasive.36
force them to engage in risky, exploitative activities
According to the Child Protection Working Group,
to support themselves and their families. The socio-
there are reports that girls as young as 12, and also
economic situation of many children and families in
boys, have been sexually abused and that sexual abuse
the aftermath of conflict may also force some children
is taking place in detention.37 The prevalence of such
to engage in transactional sex or other exploitative
abuses is hard to establish, as survivors often do
activities in order to survive.
not report the attacks for fear of dishonouring their
family or bringing about reprisals. But fear of sexual
violence is repeatedly cited to Save the Children as
Sexual violence in the
one of the principal reasons why families flee their
context of displacement homes, and there are increasing reports of early
marriage as parents take desperate measures to
Children who are forced by conflict to flee to
‘protect’ their daughters from sexual violence.38
neighbouring countries as refugees, or who become
internally displaced within their own countries, are Safety and security measures to prevent situations
exposed to danger and insecurity. They may be in which girls and boys may be more susceptible to
repeatedly displaced and separated from their families abuse are often not taken into account sufficiently
during attacks, and are often compelled to walk for when humanitarian agencies establish a shelter or
days with no protection. In these conditions they are camp. For example, children (especially girls) in
especially vulnerable to sexual violence. displacement camps set up in government-run schools
in Lebanon for Palestinian refugees in 2007 reported
“There is a recent case of a girl who has suffered
being sexually harassed while visiting toilets located
from sexual abuse. She is now 11, and is from one of
out in the playgrounds. Save the Children raised
the communities in the countryside. There the people
the problem, and the toilets were moved inside the
have farms, but many people from this area have
buildings. Save the Children also raised awareness of
been displaced, not just by illegal armed groups and
the problem among parents and carers of children so
guerrillas but also by the army, because the army
they could make sure that children were not left to
needs places to keep watch. This has also led to cases
go to the toilets alone at night.
of children being raped. Families are scared of this, so
they leave their homes.” In camps in Ethiopia, more than 69% of the Somali
– A humanitarian field worker in Colombia 34
refugee population is composed of children under the
age of 18 (33% girls and 36% boys).39 In focus group
Internally displaced or refugee children living in formal
discussions, most women and girls reported having
and informal camps or within host communities are
heard of or experienced sexual violence in the camps,
also vulnerable to violence, exploitation and abuse.
including girls of 13 or younger.40 Women and girls
In Syria, for example, it is estimated that nearly reported feeling most at risk of rape when collecting
4 million people are currently in need of assistance firewood; to do this they had to move outside the
within the country, and an estimated 80,000 internally immediate vicinity of the camp, which left them
displaced people (IDPs) are sleeping rough in caves, alone and particularly vulnerable. In one set of focus
parks or barns.35 Some temporary shelters and group discussions almost all the women and girls
basic items are provided by Syrian or international interviewed reported having witnessed or survived
humanitarian agencies to people displaced in the rape (including gang rape) while collecting firewood.
country, but challenges to responding mean the level Given the frequency of the attacks, some women have
6

16. stopped collecting firewood, with severe implications Early or forced marriages are also prevalent in refugee
3 W
for their ability to cook and ensure adequate levels of and IDP camps. As the examples below show, in some
nutrition for their family. cases girls are forced to marry their rapist, either by
their parents to avoid the shame such violence brings
here
“I always go to the hills praying that I return safe for
to the family and the girl, or under pressure from the
my children, and that God will rule out rape or physical
attacker himself. In other cases, families pressurise
does it
violence this time.”
girls to marry in the belief that she will have access
– a female participant in a Save the Children focus group
(December 2012) discussion with refugees who have fled to services or in return for services or supplies for
Somalia, on her fears about collecting firewood the family.
happen ?
“Sexual violence/rape is prevalent in our camp, In the Dollo Ado camps in Ethiopia, Somali refugee
especially as women and girls go to collect firewood, girls as young as 11 are often ‘married’ to prevent
and we are always risking our lives as our children ‘dishonour’ for both the girl and her family in
would starve if we didn’t put our lives at stake.” the event that they are raped or sexually abused.
– a pregnant participant in a focus group (December 2012) Moreover, young girls who have been raped or
discussion with refugees who have fled Somalia sexually assaulted might also then be married to
In the Dadaab refugee camps on the Somalia-Kenya minimise ‘dishonour’ for the family.
border, young girls and adolescents in particular are “It is very important for a girl to get married soon,
frequently attacked while searching for firewood, as she will be safe from any risks and abuses in the
going to the toilet or walking to collect water, all of community. Furthermore, only few girls can control
which activities mean walking to the outskirts of the themselves and many would engage in unnecessary
camp or farther, which exposes them to increased sexual behaviours that are against the culture and the
risk. Across the Dadaab camps there are also religion of the society. We don’t want to hear things like
frequent cases of sexual violence against young boys. ‘Your daughter was seen with a boy’, or ‘Your daughter
Displaced or refugee children are particularly did this or that.’ As a family we want to be dignified, and
vulnerable to sexual abuse and physical harm when this can be achieved through getting girls married at
they become separated from their parents. This can an early age, otherwise many will end up in prostitution
be a result of the death of one or both parents, or the and bring shame to their families and clans.”
children may be sent to live elsewhere in the belief – a 64-year-old male participant in a Save the Children focus group
(December 2012) discussion with refugees who have fled Somalia
that they will be safer or have better education and
other facilities. In Myanmar, for example, children are Similarly, in the Dadaab camps in Kenya, early marriage
sent to camps by parents in the hope that they will be of girls as young as 13 is also widespread. One
able to access better education.41 adolescent girl reported to Save the Children that
men with money would often offer fathers their
Girls living in foster care or extended families can be
‘daily bread’ in return for marrying their daughters.
especially vulnerable to sexual abuse once they enter
Girl survivors of rape at the camp also reported to
puberty and start to develop. In addition to sexual
Save the Children that they felt powerless to refuse to
violence, girls living without their parents were more
marry their attacker for lack of other options and the
susceptible to being taken out of school, overworked
fear of being rejected by their families, pushed out of
and pushed into a forced or early marriage.
the camps, sent back to Somalia or even killed.
“At that time, I was five years old. My mother was
Early marriage of adolescent refugee girls from
working, and my father too, and my older sister was
Syria in Lebanon, some as young as 14, is used
studying. So I was with my uncle. He gave dinner to my
as a ‘protection’ and coping mechanism. While
two little sisters but he didn’t give me dinner. We went
early marriage was common among the Syrian
to bed – me with my sisters – but I couldn’t sleep so
population when they were still at home in Syria,
he took me to his room. In that moment, everything
with displacement to Lebanon there is evidence that
happened. He raped me.”
an increased number of girls are being married to
– Sandra, now aged 15, describing how she was raped by her uncle
after she was sent to live with extended family in Colombia42 community members to ‘protect’ them from rape,
7

17. while some are being married to rich men from In conflict or post-conflict situations, worsening
unspeakable crimes against children
the refugee or host community to offset living and poverty and the undermining of traditional social
accommodation costs.43 norms may force children into new forms of sexual
violence, exploitation and abuse, such as transactional
or commercial sex. Girls, in particular, may be
Sexual violence in detention encouraged or forced by their families to engage in
transactional sex with community members such as
The problem of sexual violence against children in teachers or store owners in exchange for materials
detention is a major concern within the juvenile and other items.46
justice arena in general. It springs from a disregard of
legislation and normative guidance to protect children One report in the eastern DRC estimated that up
within justice systems (that suggests, for example, to 80% of unaccompanied children were engaging
not placing children in the same detention facility in transactional sex.47 A further report detailed the
as adults). Within conflict, particularly where justice causes and ‘controllers’ of such exploitation.48 Poverty,
systems are weak and normal rules of detention are the lack of means to access education and the impact
often misapplied or not enforced, the risk of such of conflict were reported by both boy and girl
standards being disregarded is even greater. Certain respondents as the main drivers for their engagement
children are also at significant risk because of their in transactional sex. The general age of children was
ethnicity, nationality or perceived association with between 12 and 14 years (though some children as
a political or armed group, or because they have young as eight were also noted). And in Colombia,
experienced or witnessed sexual violence. This can it is estimated that 20,000 to 35,000 children have
include being tortured in a sexual manner. been forced into commercial sex work as a direct
consequence of the culture of violence and poverty
Children are particularly at risk of sexual violence resulting from the armed conflict.49
when they are detained and targeted for information,
because of the unequal power dynamics between Some families living in conflict areas may view ‘selling’
adults and children. Evidence from the Middle East their children into trafficking as a way of securing
highlights the particular vulnerability of boys to such their safety from the conflict. Save the Children staff
violence in that region. Recent reports on Israel working in conflict-affected areas report cases of girls
and the OPT by the UN Security Council Working being trafficked in northern Myanmar to be brides
Group on Children and Armed Conflict documented in China. This exploitation was primarily controlled
six cases of Palestinian boys being sexually assaulted by civilians, but civilians and military personnel were
by Israeli security forces and 20 cases in which boys reported to be clients.
were threatened with sexual assault.44 Looking at the long-term consequences of sexual
In Syria, sexual violence in detention has reportedly exploitation and trafficking coming out of conflict
been used in order to torture boys, and includes rape settings it is commonly believed that the frequent
and other penetration, sexual groping, forced nudity sexual exploitation of girls and trafficking for sexual
and beatings to genitalia.45 purposes witnessed during the Balkans War has led to
the continuing and worryingly high level of trafficking
of young girls for sexual purposes from and within
Sexual violence in pre- and South-East Europe seen today.50
post-conflict settings
It is important to recognise that sexual violence
is not a problem exclusive to times of conflict –
sexual violence, as well as other forms of violence,
is prevalent and problematic in peacetime in all
countries. It disproportionately affects women and
girls, although boys are subject to it as well.
8

18. 4 Who are the
perpetrators?
Armed actors, whether from government However, in many cases the stationing of troops,
armed forces or from non-state armed including those serving in peacekeeping missions,
groups, are likely to be the primary group of has also led to increases in the levels of sexual
perpetrators of sexual violence in conflict. exploitation of children. A joint study conducted by
Save the Children and UNHCR in Sierra Leone in
However, it should not be forgotten that a
2002 highlighted, for the first time, shockingly high
significant proportion will be civilians.
levels of sexual exploitation and abuse of civilians by
Such is the nature of conflict (particularly chronic, peacekeepers and other humanitarian staff (including
long-term or cyclical conflict and instability) that a volunteers and incentive workers53). It found relief
breakdown of socio-cultural norms combined with items being provided in exchange for sexual favours
strained economic conditions and likely impunity for and/or inappropriate relationships as a result of
perpetrators can result in an increase in the number the unequal power relations between displaced
of civilians committing sexual violence against children, communities and those who are mandated to protect
within the home and community. Indeed, reports and assist them.54
from IDP camps in northern Uganda showed that
It should also be noted that while men are likely to
sexual violence committed by civilians (other camp
represent the majority of perpetrators of sexual
residents) was much higher than that committed by
violence and exploitation against children, women
armed actors.51
are also responsible, particularly in relation to
“The man who raped me was the husband of my the control or exploitation of children engaged in
brother’s sister… He was a man who was related to transactional sex as a result of their economic and
the paramilitary group or guerrillas – I’m not sure family situations.55
which… After he raped me, I felt awful, I felt sad, I
cried and cried. I was pregnant. I really wanted to
die. I couldn’t eat anything. He was near to my house
and I was very scared. I didn’t go out, because I was
scared it would happen to me again. He went away
and I felt better, but then when he came back I felt the
same horrible feelings again. I was 18 when he raped
me.This happens a lot. There is a lot of violence and
people don’t report it.”
– Angie, aged 23, recounting the experience of
being raped in Colombia when she was 1852
9

19. 5 Why does it happen?
There are many different and sometimes “There is a problem of physical abuse here of women
overlapping reasons why armed and non- by men. Many of the men are chauvinistic. Some
armed individuals commit sexual violence women get used to this abuse, but it’s difficult and they
against children during conflict. This section never report it.”
– Maria, aged 33, describing violence against
explores the primary factors. women in her area of Colombia56
In many pre-conflict settings, women and girls
often suffer economic, social, cultural and political
Gender and power inequalities
discrimination, and many do not know of the rights
Sexual violence perpetuates power inequalities in and protections that may exist under national or
interpersonal relations and in society, reproducing international law. Social customs and customary laws
the structures that enable this type of violence to are also often highly discriminatory against women
exist before, during and after conflict. Such power and girls, and often take precedence over national
inequalities include those based on gender (male/ laws in relation to acts of violence against women in
female and male/male) as well as those based on age the community. In Afghanistan, for example, despite
(adult/child). An overwhelming factor at the heart a national law enacted in 2009 criminalising rape and
of gender-based violence is the pervasive inequality all forms of sexual and other violence against women,
between males and females and the discrimination women who have been raped are often subjected to
that women and girls face within societies as a whole. lengthy prison sentences pursuant to the Afghan Penal
There is a direct link between discrimination against Code,57 and punishments of flogging and stoning for
women and girls in peacetime and the intensified adultery have been reported.58
violence inflicted on women and girls in times of war. A key tool for perpetrators is their ability to make
“[Justified reasons for beating one’s wife include] their victims believe they (the victims) are to blame
a woman talking to another man in the market or for their abuse. In distortions of power between
elsewhere, losing the food ration, not taking good care adults and children that are influenced by gender
of the house-cleaning and washing, delaying in doing (ie, between adult and adolescent males and girls),
chores, neglecting children, burning food or preparing attitudes that girls are to blame for rape or that they
food which is not tasty, arguing with the husband over want to be raped are common, and in turn can fuel
inappropriate use of food rations.” further abuse.
– a 28-year-old female participant in a focus group (December Gender inequality and power relations are also
2012) discussion with refugees who have fled Somalia
relevant in the context of defining cultural values
In many conflict-affected countries, the fact that and practices, and within the wider framework of
females are considered second-class citizens is closely social relations between families and communities
related to the violence inflicted on women and girls, (for example, racial, ethnic, caste and social class
and to the discriminatory absence of appropriate inequalities).59 In some countries, superstition and
measures on the part of the state to combat fetishism are a further motivation of some fighters,
such violence. many of whom reportedly believe that having sexual
relations with a pre-pubescent child will make them
immune to disease, including HIV, or will cure them
if they already have contracted HIV, or protect them
from injury or death during combat.60
10

20. Changing and weakening Where children are not able to turn to such
5 W hy
of social norms institutions for guidance in social and sexual
development, they are likely to turn towards other,
“The most difficult thing to change is the culture – more counterproductive groups, and even perpetrate
this sexual violence has become a way of life… The violence themselves. In this way, sexual violence can
does it
thing that makes me sad is how the culture has got to be cyclical if not adequately addressed: “Cycles of
this. I don’t understand how this has become part of violence emerge as children who have been deeply
the culture.” traumatised by violence join armed groups, street
– A humanitarian field worker in Colombia61 gangs or live on the street because their family
happen ?
Armed conflict destroys many normal forms of networks cannot support them”.64
protection, and in particular governmental and
community mechanisms, such as pre-existing law
enforcement, statutory social or child welfare systems, Socio-economic and
schools and religious structures. Families are also cultural breakdown
often separated. Children are therefore made more
In non-conflict or pre-conflict settings, the socio-
vulnerable to sexual violence during conflict when
economic situation of families has been seen to be a
the family and community support systems that are
key driver of children’s vulnerability to sexual violence
so essential to a child’s survival and development are
and exploitation.65 The destabilising effect of conflict
fractured or collapse.
on families’ and communities’ economic stability can
During conflict, traditional institutions such as families, contribute to children’s vulnerability.
schools or religious institutions, which play a role in
Loss of livelihoods and a perceived loss of ‘manhood’
the development of children through the provision
are also cited as creating psychosocial pressure on
of protection and guidance (including on their social
men that can increase the prevalence of violence.
development and sex education), are often unable
Participants in focus group discussions with refugee
to provide support to children, leaving them at
populations who have fled Somalia, for example,
greater risk of violence and abuse. In many families,
described psychosocial pressure on men leading to
particularly in rural communities, parents and other
the increased use of cigarettes and abuse of ‘chat/
primary carers of children do not know how to
khat’ (a flowering plant with an amphetamine-like
effectively protect their children during conflict (for
stimulant), which may result in increased sexual
example, considering it appropriate for children to
violence in homes and in the camps.66
engage in hazardous and exploitative activities, or not
knowing how to protect their children from threats A lack of economic opportunities or access to
within communities).62 markets and income sources as well as increases in
female, single-parent and child-headed households
The protective role of parents and other carers of
can lead women and girls to engage in transactional
children is often undermined and damaged by the
sex in order to gain essential items or contribute to
effects of conflict and worsening socio-economic
household income. In countries with long histories
conditions, exacerbating situations where family and
of conflict and instability, there is evidence that the
community members are or can become perpetrators
economic impact of conflict, including reduced wages
of violence themselves. Poverty also has a negative
and high unemployment, can be seen in parts of the
impact on the support children receive from their
country that are not directly affected by conflict, as
families, as it encourages the use of children to
well as in those areas that are.
generate income. In certain contexts, families can even
encourage or take advantage of a child experiencing In Kinshasa, local organisations have reported
sexual violence or abuse: “Today some cases of families sending girls as young as eight to engage in
sexual violence are authorised by parents… they are transactional sex.67 In a study of children living and
no longer capable of taking charge of their children working on the street in Kinshasa, 63.3% of girls
and that is why when it comes to the application of interviewed stated that transactional sex or ‘survival’
the law, many parents prefer an informal settlement sex was their main source of income.68 Engagement
(arrangement à l’amiable)… because a cow is really a in risky sexual survival strategies such as transactional
source of wealth.”63
11

21. sex can lead to greater vulnerability to other sexual is seen to threaten their honour. In war this dynamic
unspeakable crimes against children
violence and abuse. Reduced economic conditions is used to further dishonour and humiliate families
within families may also contribute to an increase and communities.
in early or forced marriage, as levels of poverty may
“The girl they took was 16… They had uniforms – they
make dowries appear more useful than having a girl
were all dressed the same. They covered their eyes so
within the home.
she didn’t know who they were. They had guns. There
were five of them, and they all forced her to sleep with
them. They didn’t hit her, but they ruined her.”
Rape as a weapon of war
– Maimouna, 24, describing the abduction and
gang rape of her 16-year-old neighbour in Mali 71
Combatants use rape as a deliberate strategy of warfare,
perpetrated in many cases with the encouragement Sexual violence can have a clear ethnic dimension
or at the behest of commanding officers. The rape of in some cases, with fighters deliberately singling out
children in particular can be used to deliberately and their victims from among an ‘opposing’ ethnic group.
strategically destabilise opposing forces by terrorising Inter-ethnic violence can extend to sexual violence,
and humiliating the men, women and children of the and numerous women are targeted for rape solely
community from which they believe their adversaries because of their ethnicity. The goal is to undermine
originate. Fighters also commit rape to secure control, community bonds, weaken resistance and perpetuate
through fear and intimidation, over the population of the ethnic cleansing by targeting individuals in a particular
territory they want to occupy, with the ultimate aim of ethnic group and using rape as a way to destroy
gaining access to, or maintaining control over, territories unwanted groups of a different ethnicity or religion,
that are rich in natural resources. including through deliberate infection with HIV or
forced impregnation of women.
As with rape against women, rape against children
can be used as a form of reprisal against individuals,
families and communities. The rapists also seek to
attack the fundamental values and social fabric of
Undisciplined security forces
the community, principally through maximising the The very institutions that are supposed to keep
humiliation and debasement of children and witnesses. children safe from violence can sometimes perpetuate
In the DRC, for example, cases feature the rape the problem. In many instances, attacks on the
of mothers and daughters in front of their family, population, including children, are linked to corruption
mass rapes, rapes in public and forcing victims to of the police force, or poor capacity of the national
have sex with family members as ways to attack the army. The army not only fails to fulfil its duty to
fundamental values of the community.69 In Sri Lanka a provide security for the civilian population, but
grandmother described how the army raped both her perpetrates violations against children themselves. The
and her daughter in front of her grandchildren: “The increased presence of national armies, police forces
army made us strip completely in front of the children. and international peacekeeping forces in conflict can
All the women were made to walk around the perpetuate the problem of sexual violence.
soldiers in a circle. The soldiers were laughing at us.
All the women were then raped in front of everyone. As we know from a number of high-profile examples,
My daughter and I were raped in front of her children. international peacekeeping forces have themselves
I was raped in front of my grandchildren.” 70 committed acts of sexual exploitation and abuse
(SEA) during conflicts in, for example, Cambodia, the
In many cultures keeping women ‘chaste’ is seen to be DRC, East Timor, Eritrea, Haiti and Liberia. Despite
important to the honour of families and communities. measures taken within the UN system to address
Girls and women that are sexually assaulted or raped SEA, such as the Secretary-General’s Bulletin, and the
may be perceived to bring dishonour to the family and introduction of training and disciplinary procedures,
can be ostracised. In some cases girls and women can such misconduct within UN missions continues to
even be killed by their own families if their behaviour be challenging.
12

22. Widespread climate of impunity International humanitarian law specifically requires
5 W hy
parties to a conflict to protect women and children
Rape and other forms of sexual violence are from rape and any other form of assault. The
prohibited by most national laws as well as by prohibition of rape and sexual violence during conflict
international human rights law73 and international is actually widely considered to be a principle of
does it
humanitarian law. When committed on a large scale customary international humanitarian law. States
or systematically during conflict, such conduct also have an obligation to ensure that their national laws
amounts to a crime against humanity in addition are compliant with the prohibition and must take
to constituting a war crime. And yet rape and steps to prevent, investigate, prosecute and punish
happen ?
other sexual violence are seldom prosecuted, and perpetrators of violations.
perpetrators rarely face any legal or disciplinary
While states have primary responsibility for
consequences for their crimes. As a result, a culture
prosecuting these crimes, international criminal
of impunity is entrenched, encouraging further rapes
law allows alleged perpetrators to be tried in an
and sexual violence, as perpetrators know that they
international court, such as the International Criminal
will not be held accountable.
Court, or at specific ad hoc tribunals (as for Rwanda,
“It’s very difficult. This man is dangerous to others the former Yugoslavia and Sierra Leone), or in a
and linked to armed groups because of his brother. domestic court of a third state invoking universal
He knows that all the neighbours know what has jurisdiction. In practice, however, the number of
happened. The mother herself returned from the prosecutions in such courts is exceedingly low.
hospital and told all the neighbours that the girl [aged
Even where national laws are in line with international
two and a half] had also been raped. But the man
law, customary practice still prevailing in many parts
knows he can be fine. He says hi to all the neighbours
of some states penalises survivors – for example,
and stays there calmly because he knows that nothing
through charges of adultery or homosexuality, when
has ever happened to him. He knows the police won’t
they try to report a sexual attack.
do anything. So much violence happens here and the
police are here every day – morning and afternoon – Evidentiary and procedural barriers to prosecutions
but they never do anything.” for rape and sexual violence can also contribute
– Susana, aged 36, recounting the rape of one of her to the culture of impunity. An extreme example is
neighbours’ children, aged just two and a half, in Colombia74
Sudan, where many judges require that four male
Abuses committed by peacekeepers and humanitarian workers
In 2002, a ground-breaking report by Save the of sexual exploitation and abuse by all UN staff,
Children and UNHCR highlighted the extent the establishment of the Inter-agency Standing
of exploitation and abuse of women and girls Committee Task Force on Protection from Sexual
by peacekeepers and humanitarian workers in Exploitation and Abuse in Humanitarian Crises (as
Sierra Leone and Liberia, where common items of part of the humanitarian reform process), individual
humanitarian aid (ie, food and non-food rations) and inter-agency codes of conduct, investigation
and other items or ‘promises’ were exchanged procedures and trainings. Despite these measures
for sexual favours. In response to this the UN and and some improvement in reducing the scale of the
NGOs started to put in place codes of conduct; problem, the level of exploitation is still worryingly
training of personnel; and reporting, investigation high, as highlighted in the 2008 report No One To
and disciplinary procedures. This has culminated in Turn To.72
the UN Secretary-General’s Bulletin on prevention
13