Prof. Dr. Aly I. N. AbdelAal, Director of Soils, Water & Environment Research Institute (SWERI), Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Ministry of Agriculture and land Reclamation, Land and Water Days in Near East & North Africa, 15-18 December 2013, Amman, Jordan

2. Prof. Dr. Aly I. N. AbdelAal
Director of
Soils, Water & Environment Research Institute (SWERI),
Agricultural Research Center (ARC)
Ministry of Agriculture and land Reclamation,
El-Gammaa St. Giza, Egypt
arwa_nagib@hotmail.com

3. Location of Egypt
Egypt is the global heart
•
Egypt forms the northeast
corner of Africa
•Egypt lies within the dry tropical
region, except for the northern
parts that lie within the warm
moderate region.

4. The Nile Delta and the Nile River Valley of
Egypt, is one of the oldest agricultural
areas in the world, having been under
continuous cultivation for at least 5000
years.
The arid climate of Egypt, characterized by
high evaporation rates (1500 – 2400
mm/year) and little rainfall.

5. Agriculture in Ancient Egyptian

6. The River Nile is the life of the country serving:
• Fresh water supply for agriculture,
industry and domestic use
• Hydro-electric power generation
• Navigation.

7. The agricultural sector still accounts more
than 30% of the gross national product
and 80% of export earnings.
Egypt, however, is now facing a challenging
problem of how to increase the rate of
growth in agricultural production to
provide food that is sufficient for a high
annual rate of population increase at
about 2.5%.

8. Water supplies and demands in Egypt
I. Water supplies
1990
2000
2025
Nile water
Groundwater:
In the Delta and New Valley
In the desert
Reuse of agricultural drainage water
Treated sewage water
Management and saving wasted water
55.5
57.5
57.5
2.6
0.5
4.7
0.2
-
5.1
6.3
7.0
1.1
1.0
8.0
2.4
-
Total
63.5
71.7
74.2
Agriculture
Households
Industry
Navigation
49.7
3.1
4.6
1.8
59.9
3.1
6.1
0.3
61.5
5.1
8.6
0.4
Total
59.2
69.4
75.6
II. Water demands
The agriculture sector is the largest user and consumer of water in Egypt
accounting for more than 85 percent of the total gross demand for water. On
a consumptive basis, the share of agricultural demand is even higher at more
than 95 percent.
After: Abu-Zeid, 1995, Abdel-Shafy and Aly, 2002.

10. 6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
Population Growth (1897-2050)
2050
2035
2025
2016
2006
1996
1986
1976
1966
1960
1947
1937
1927
1917
1907
0
1897
Population Growth (Million)
300
Per-Capita Water Allocation
Per-Capita Water Allocation (1000 m3)
EGYPT: Population Growth & Per-Capita Water Allocation
1897 - 2050

11. Horizontal Expansion Plan Till Year 2017
(3.4 Million Feddan)
Location
Area/fed
Sinai
413300
East Delta
647730
Middle Delta
108820
West Delta
1012900
Middle Egypt
99150
Upper Egypt
468100
Beachs of Naser
lack
50000
Halaib nad
Shalatin
60000
Toshiky
540000

12. Present and Future Challenges
1. Desertification
2. Climatic Change
3. Waterlogged, saline and sodic
4.
5.
6.
7.
soils
Urbanization Encroachment
Soil Pollution
Water Pollution
Awareness deficient

13. 1. Desertification
A stony plain

14. 2) Effect of Climatic Changes
Sea-water Intrusion
Distribution of groundwater salinity in ppm in the lower Nile delta
for 50 m depth, showing intrusion of saline water into the
northeastern part and brackish water in the northwestern part
including Alexandria (modified from Gaamea, 2000).

15. Shoreline
Erosion
Land Productivity
Declined
Map of the Nile delta shows main
vulnerability
degree
(15%
artificially protected sectors, 30%
unprotected sectors and 55%
naturally protected sectors) and
the existing structural mitigations
along the Nile delta coastal zone.

16. Salt Affected Soils

17. 4) Urbanization Encroachment
Due to the high increase in
population and the dominant
of social living the urban
encroachment is occurred.

18. 5) Soil, Water and Air Pollution
•
•
•
•
a) Soil pollution:
Agricultural area in Egypt is 4% of the total area (3.2 million ha)
Agriculture is very intensive (2-3 crops/year).
The demand for raising productivity led to an increase in fertilizer
use
High imbalances in crop nutrition in favour of nitrogen (absence of
accurate information on nutrient needs for different crops under
different conditions)
Country
United States
Morocco
Egypt
N
2.3
4.6
19.5
P2O5
1.5
3
4
K2O
kg/tonne
2.5
4.5
0.5
Fruit yield
(tonnes/ha)
> 48
36–48
14–20
Amounts of nutrients applied to produce one tonne
of orange and yield in different countries

19. Agriculture in Egypt has always been
confined to the Nile Valley and Delta
which comprise only 3.6% of the
country’s land surface.
Exceptions are a few oases in the
western Desert and some recently
reclaimed desert lands adjacent to the
River Valley and Delta.

20. Soils, Water &
Environment Res.
Inst., ARC,
Established in 1903

22. Soil Resources Management
The cultivated area in
Egypt to 8.4 million
feddans,
representing
only 5% of Egypt total
area (I million Km2)

23. Rehabilitation of irrigation systems
Furrow
Wide furrow
Lining of irrigation
canal
Gated pipes

24. SOIL AND WATER MANAGEMENT
Modern Irrigation
Systems
Land Leveling
Soil Amendments

25. Wastes Agricultural Recycling
Compost
Biogas Technology
To Produce Energy

26. Bio-Fertilizers and Biological Agents
Seanobactreen
Ascobeen
Phosphoreen
Nemales
Potaples Solutions
Microbeen
Yeast Active
Serialeen
Pioveen
okadin
Mixed
bacteria
solution

27. Drainage
Save Egyptian Soil
From Deterioration

28. Pilot Areas and Drainage Technology
The pilot areas and drainage technology deals
with research topics covered over a decade of
activities varied among design,
implementation and maintenance problems
which originate from the field practices of
drainage project in Egypt.
• A number of pilot areas have been constructed
in the Nile Delta
The Main Research Objectives:
• Evaluation of the impact of drainage on
agriculture

29. Pilot Areas and Drainage Technology
The Main Research Objectives:
• Evaluation of the impact of drainage on agriculture in
relation to:
(i). Degree of watertable control under various agricultural,
hydrological and soil condition
(ii). Degree of salinity control under various irrigation
practices and subsequent drainage rates
• Assessment of the impact of future drainage projects on
crop production and water use under various design and/or
construction concept
• Evaluation and testing of different drainage material and
auxiliary structure, installation techniques, operation
controls and maintenance equipment
• Development of monitoring methods to evaluate the
effectiveness of the drainage projects.

30. Case Study
Salty Clay Soils under Saline
Shallow Watertable Depth
in
The Northern Eastern Nile
Delta, Egypt

31. INTRODUCTION
• Most of deteriorated salty clay soils are found
•
•
•
throughout the northern periphery of the Nile Delta.
The clay cap is about 40 meters.
It is the highly saline shallow ground water, which
creates soil water logging, salinity and/or alkalinity
associated with severe decline in soil structure and
soil aeration.
Since leaching water may pass only through macropores and not within clay peds. Consequently
improving leaching efficiency through artificial restructure would be a possible solution.

33. Manzala Lake
The clay about 60%
The hydraulic conductivity is
0.0669 m/day.
The average water table
salinity is 25dS/m

34. The Aims
• The aim is to study crop production
as affected by drainage types for
evaluating improvement soil
condition to sustain land use for
maximizing crop production and
prevent soil deterioration.

35. General and long-term objectives
•Developing locally applicable and easy
techniques for reclamation and sustainable
land use.
•Avoiding soil deterioration.
•Improvement of the socio-economic
situation of small-scale farmers.
•Improvement of international cooperation.

36. Specific objective to be achieved by the proposal
•Improve the management of irrigated soils by
introducing mole drainage.
•To study the stability and suitability of the fine
textured Egyptian soils for mole drainage.
•Develop suitable tillage and mole drainage techniques
for:
- the reclamation of saline and sodic soils, and
- the continuous control of groundwater tables and
salinity.
•To solve the complex management of the problem
areas of heavy clay saline soils with shallow saline
water table in the northern part of Egypt by testing
new auxiliary drainage techniques.

37. Manzala Lake
Mole Experiment

38. Open Drainage - Moling for desalinization
of Salty Clay Soils in Northeastern Egypt
12
Below
8
6
4
2
0
I
II
/ y
da
D r a w do w n r a te m m
10
III
Before Moling
IV
V
After
10
8
6
4
2
/ y
da
Above
D r a w do w n r a te m m
12
0
I
II
III
Before Moling
IV
V
Afte r
Moling
Moling
20 m Drain Spacing
40 m D rain S pacing
Seasons
S easons
Drawdown rate before and after moljng under different drain spacing treatments

39. Open Drainage - Moling for desalinization
of Salty Clay Soils in Northeastern Egypt
Uppe r laye r
Dee per laye r
14
14
12
8
6
4
10
8
6
4
-
E C, dSm 1
10
-
E C , dS m 1
12
2
2
0
I
0
I
II
III
IV
II
III
IV
V
Before Mol i ng
B ef ore Molin g
After
Seasons
Afte r
Mol i ng
Molin g
20 m Drain Sp acin g
V
40 m Drai n S paci ng
S eason s
Soil salinity before and after moling under different drain spacing treatments.

40. Open Drainage - Moling for desalinization
of Salty Clay Soils in Northeastern Egypt
Seasons
I
II
III
40
IV
20 m
40 m
IV
0
35
30
-2 0
-4 0
-6 0
-8 0
20
15
(
dS
/
m
)
W a terta bl e s a linity
W a tert a bl e dept h cm
25
10
5
0
-1 00
20 m
40 m
I
II
III
IV
S ea s on s
Mean groundwater depth (cm) and salinity in the successive years for both
drainage treatments.
IV

41. Mole Drainage for Maximizing Soil Productivity
under Saline Groundwater Table, Egypt

42. 20
Without Gypsum
With Gypsum
16
8
4
1999
2000
2001
3 .0 m
2 .0 m
2002
1 .5 m
No
Mole drain spacing
2003
3 .0 m
2 .0 m
1 .5 m
ar
No
s
0
Ye
E C dS m
12

43. W i th ou t G y ps u m
W i th G yps um
45
E xch an ge abl e S od i um Pe rc e nt age
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
3 .0 m
2 .0 m
2002
1 .5 m
No
2003
3 .0 m
2 .0 m
Ye
No
ar
1999
2000
2001
0
s
5
1 .5 m
Mole Drain Spacing
Soil alkalinity (ESP) as affected with mole drainage and gypsum addition treatments.

44. W it h o u t G y ps u m
R ice Y ield (Ton /fed d an )
5
W it h G y ps u m
4
3
2
2003
2002
2001
2000
3 .0 m
2 .0 m
1 .5 m
No
M o le D ra in S pa cin g
1999
3 .0 m
2 .0 m
1 .5 m
Rice yields (Ton/fd) as affected with mole drainage and gypsum addition treatments
Ye
No
ar
0
s
1

46. • The experimental Treatment Design
• Three drain spacing treatments separated by buffer zones:
• (i) 15 m. spacing (calculated spacing according to the
•
•
steady state formula, (Houghoudt, 1940);
(ii) 30 m. spacing (conventional spacing adopted in the
surrounding areas); and
(iii) 60 m. spacing (double of the conventional spacing for
future secondary drainage treatments).
• The sub-treatments are two types of subsoiling; the
distance between plowing 1.5 meters and the depth
is 50 cm. There are:
• (i). One direction: Parallel orientation subsoiling
type and perpendicular on tile drains, and
• (ii). Two directions: Net structure- subsoiling type.

47. The successive cultivated crops
The successive cultivated crops were wheat,
sorghum, and clover. Total yield including
straw and grains were determined.
Sorghum plant samples were taken
randomly from each plot to determine
fresh weight and dry matter. For clover,
berseem cut was measured for fresh and
dry weight. The crop production data is
a n a l y z e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y .

48. Wheat
• Plant heights as well as dry content are highly
significant increased with decreasing drain
spacing treatments. Subsoiling types are highly
significant on the plant height (Figure1a & b).
The total number of tillers per plant is highly
significant increased with decreasing drain
s p a c i n g
t r e a t m e n t s .
• The total yield is relatively (Wheat grain and
straw) is relatively increased with decreasing
drain spacing treatments (Figure 1c, 1d).).
• The net treatment is more effective for wheat
traits and yield than parallel treatment.

49. 1.1
A v e r a g e o f w he a t pla nt he ig ht (c m )
50
S ubsoiling
Parallel
Subsoiling
Net
No
A verage of w h eat d ry m atter (g/p lan t)
No
40
30
20
15 m
(a).
30 m
0.7
0.5
60 m
0.3
15 m
2.5
Parallel
Net
A v era g e o f w h ea t s tra w y ield (T o n /fd )
A ve r age of w he at gr ain yie ld (T on/fd)
No
2
1.5
(c). 1
60 m
30 m
60 m
(b).
Drain spacing
Subsoiling
30 m
Net
0.9
Drain spacing
15 m
Parallel
Subsoiling
No
4
Parallel
Net
3
2
(d).
Figure (1). Wheat as affected by drain spacing and subsoiling treatment, winter season
Drain spacing
96/97: (a) Plant height. (b) Dry matter. (C) Grain Yield and (d) Straw Yield.
Drain spacing
15 m
30 m
60 m

50. Sorghum
• Plant heights as well as dry matter are relatively increased
•
with decreasing drain spacing treatments (Figure 2a &b);
the net subsoiling is the highest treatment for increasing the
plant height. The best treatment is net subsoiling combined
with drain spacing at 15 m; while the worst treatment 60 m
without any subsoiling treatments.
The soil treated with 60 m drain spacing combined with (b).
net
subsoiling is much similar to the treatment of 15 m drain
spacing on the sorghum plant height. The yields are
relatively increased with decreasing drain spacing
treatments (Figure 2c) and highly significant effect of
subsoiling types on the sorghum yield. The net subsoiling is
more increasing sorghum yield than the parallel treatments.
The best treatment for increasing sorghum yield is drain
spacing at 15 m combined with net subsoiling while the
least treatment is drain spacing at 60 m.

51. Subsoiling
No
Parallel
12
Net
No
110
(a).
15 m
30 m
60 m
Drain spacing
12
Subsoiling
No
Parallel
10
Net
Net
8
6
4
8
2
6
15 m
30 m
60 m
4
Drain spacing
2
(b).
Parallel
10
130
90
A v era g e o f s o rg hum dry m a tter (g /pla nt)
Subsoiling
150
S o r g h u m Y ie ld ( T o n /f d )
A v era g e o f s o rg h u m p la n t h eig h t (cm )
170
15 m
30 m
Drain spacing
60 m
(c).
Figure (2). Sorghum as affected by drain spacing and subsoiling treatment, summer
season 96/97: (a) Plant height. (b) Dry matter and ( C) Sorghum Yield.

52. Clover
• The fresh and dry weight content at
second and third cut as affected by drain
spacing combined subsoiling type (Figure
3a &b and Figure4a &b)) is relatively
increased with decreasing drain spacing
treatments. There is a highly significant on
fresh weight. The net treatments are
mostly affected on increasing fresh weight
more than the other treatments.

53. Subsoiling
No
Parallel
Net
11
10
9
8
7
6
15 m
30 m
10
A v era g e o f clo v er fres h w eig h t, th ird cu t (T o n /fd )
A ve r age of c love r fr e sh w e igh t, se c on d c u t ( T on /fd )
12
60 m
Subsoiling
No
Parallel
Net
9
8
7
6
5
15 m
30 m
Figure (3). Clover fresh weight [(a) second & (b) third cut] versus drain spacing and60 m
Drain spacing
subsoiling treatments.
Drain spacing
Subsoiling
No
Parallel
Net
1.2
1
0.8
A v era g e o f clo v er dry m a tter w eig ht (T o n/fd)
1.6
1.4
Subsoiling
No
Parallel
Net
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
15 m
0.6
15 m
30 m
60 m
30 m
Subsoiling
Figure (4). Clover Drain spacing [(a) second & (b) third cut] versus drain spacing and
dry weight
subsoiling treatments.
60 m

54. Soil Salinity
• The closer drain spacing with net subsoiling
realizes desalinization of the surface soil layers.
There is also highly significant effect on lowering
soil surface salinity by drain spacing and
subsoiling (Figure 6). The drainage system should
be combined with subsoiling in purpose to keep at
least salinity in rootzone layer at a convenient
level to sustain soil productivity and plant growth.
This method is highly recommended for such
condition to increase losing soil between drain
spacing. The subsoiling either net or parallel helps
increasing the watertable draw down for raising
drainage efficiency. However, a narrow spacing
could be expressive and not practical

55. 0.6
(a)
Total soulable salts %
0.5
F **
LSD (5%) 0.12
(1%) 0.016
Whe at 96/97
C l ove r 97/98
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
15 m
30 m
60 m
Drain spacing treatment
0.6
F **
LSD (5%) =0.012
(1%) =0.016
Wheat 96/97
Clov
er 97/98
Total Soluble Salts (%)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
(b)
0
NO
Parallel
Net
S ubsoiling
Figure (6 ). Surface soil salinity as affected by drain spacing and subsoiling in the year of: (
96/97 & 97/98. [(a) Drain Spacing & (b) subsoiling treatments.

56. Watertable depths
• The importance of the different water table depths is
•
the positions of them midway between drains during
two- interval irrigations (Figure5).
The drainage treatments have an enhancing effect on
lowering the water table, particularly under narrow
spacing between drains combined with subsoiling
especially net treatment. Increasing downward water
movement after irrigation gives the chance for the
effective root zone to dry, shrink and form water
p
a
t
h
w
a
y
s
.

57. winter96/97
0
summer 1997
winter97/98
winter96/97
summer 1997
winter97/98
W ate r tab le d e p th s (c m )
-30
-60
-90
-120
Parellel subsoiling
Drain spacing
15 m
30 m
60 m
Net Subsoiling
-150
6 12 18
6 12 18
6 12 18
6 12 18
6 12 18
6 12 18
Days after irrigation
The groundwater table depth during different seasons as affected by drain spacing
and subsoiling type treatments.

58. Conclusion
The best treatment is drain spacing at 15 m
combined with net subsoiling. However, it is
worthy to mention that treatment of wider
drain spacing (30 m) combined with net
subsoiling gives satisfactory results in
lowering watertable and reducing salinity. It is
also reduce drainage costs.
Auxiliary treatments must be combined with any
drainage system in the management of heavy
clay low permeable soil.

59. RECOMMENDATIONS
• Alluvial soils owing heavy clay, water
•
•
logging, salts are associated with highly saline
ground water and constitute a challenging
problem.
Solving must achieve lowering water table at
the end of the irrigation intervals, accelerating
the downward movement in the surface layers,
to the drains so that irrigation water constitutes
a temporary front separating the saline ground
water table from the rootzone.
The soil must not be left fallow for a long
time.

60. The restructuring/ horizontal leaching may
provide a variable field technique for
reclamation of poorly permeable saline-sodic
swelling soils. Wider spacing combined with
secondary drainage treatment such as moling,
Subsoiling or deep ploughing is recommended.

61. Initial Soil State at El-Serw
North Eastern Delta

62. General view of the selected area

63. Leveling using LASER

64. Leveling using LASER

65. Soil during Management

66. Soil After Management

67. Manholes to measure discharge at
El-Serw Experimental field

68. Low soil productivity and scattered berseem plants.

69. Clean the surrounded open drain

70. Constructed an open drain in the middle of the site

71. General view of new constructed open drain

72. Gypsum Distribution process

73. Measuring Mole Drain distances

74. Tractor & Mole Drain Started from Open Drain

75. Penetration of Mole Drain Started
from Surround Open Drain

76. View of Mole Plow Diameter

77. Constructed Mole Drain Line
With an indicator in The Front

78. General View of Mole Lines

79. Barley Plant
Control

80. Barley Plant
3 m Mole Drain Spacing

81. Barley Plant
2 m Mole Drain Spacing

82. Barley Plant
1.5 m Mole Drain Spacing

83. Rice Plant
Field With Mole Drains

84. Rice Plant
Field With Mole Drains

85. Field Farmer with Mole Drains
Rice Plant
Field Farmer without Mole Drains

86. Scientists, Graduates and Farmers
Visiting Mole Experiment

87. Mole Plow (Front View)

88. Mole Plow
(Front View)

89. Mole Plow Connected with filling Box

90. Visitors