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Juho Hamari 
http://juhohamari.com
http://www.homesliceapp.com/wp-content/ 
uploads/2014/05/lifehacker.png
“Does 
gamification 
work?” 
or why we should not ask the question 
Citation: Hamari, J., Koivisto, J., & Sarsa, H. (2014). Does Gamification 
Work? – A Literature Review of Empirical Studies on Gamification. In 
Proceedings of the 47th Hawaii International Conference on System 
Sciences, Hawaii, USA, January 6-9, 2014.
Authors 
Jonna Koivisto 
http://jonnakoivisto.com 
jonna.koivisto@uta.fi 
Harri Sarsa 
harri.sarsa@aalto.fi
Gamification - 
a trending topic 
● Gartner predicts: By 2015, 50% of 
organizations have gamified their processes 
● “Silverbullet” for customer/user engagement 
- because games are fun, gamified services 
are also fun 
● Companies emerging that provide 
gamification services/systems 
● Everyone wants to know “does gamification 
really work?”
Gamification - 
an untrending topic? 
● “just a marketing gimmick!” 
● “exploitative!” 
● “bullshit!” 
● “extrinsic rewards!” 
● “nothing new!” 
● “paternalism!” 
● “manipulation!”
Gamification - 
an untrending topic ? 
HYPE UP: 
Gartner (2011) & IEEE (2014): 
Most organizations adopt ! 
HYPE DOWN: 
Gartner (2012): Most 
implementations fail ! 
Again: the idea is that 
gamification will succeed or fail 
as a whole
Research problem 
● Clearly gamification is booming and we have 
very polarized opinions: either a 
“Silverbullet” or “Bullshit” 
● But what does the research say? “Does it 
actually work?” 
● What kind of research has been done under 
the flag of gamification?
Literature review 
Process
… whatever the case; a mindblowing 
increase in hits in the literature
Step 1: Search hits per db 
Database Total number of results Peer-reviewed papers 
EBSCOHost 399 17 
Proquest 3423 124 
Web of Science 56 56 
Scopus 330 293 
ScienceDirect 93 93 
Google Scholar 3480 N/A 
ACM Digital library 239 196 
AISel 30 30
Step 2: Focused searches 
● Search words: gamification, gameful, gamif*, 
motivational affordances from all the 
databases 
● Selection criteria 
○ Empirical study 
○ Peer-reviewed 
○ Full research paper 
○ in an international venue 
● 24 papers found
Findings
Motivational affordances 
● The list of 
affordances 
rather well 
corresponds 
to what can be 
considered the 
blueprint of 
gamification
Psychological outcomes 
● Measured in 9 papers 
○ 6 inferential, 3 descriptive 
● Such as: Engagement, enjoyment, attitude, 
social influence, flow, task involvement, etc.
Behavioural outcomes 
● Measured in 21 papers 
○ 15 inferential, 6 descriptive 
● Such as: Amount and quality of 
use/contributions, learning outcomes, 
intentions to use, task performance
Overview of variables 
Motivational affordances Psychological outcomes Behavioral outcomes 
Points 
Leaderboard 
Badges/Achievements 
Levels 
Story/theme 
Clear goals 
Feedback 
Rewards 
Progress 
Challenge 
Social comparison 
Clear goals 
Intrinsic motivations 
Extrinsic motivations 
Social influence 
Recognition 
Reciprocal benefits 
Attitude 
Motivation 
Happiness 
Flow 
Task involvement 
Social motivation 
Perceived added-value 
Fun 
Engagement 
Enjoyment 
Satisfaction 
Amount of use 
Quality of use 
Quality of completed tasks 
Task completion speed 
Amount of contributions 
Change in type of contributions 
Amount of social interaction 
Amount on contributions 
Intentions to continue using 
Intentions to recommend to others 
Change in energy consumption 
Learning effectiveness 
Task performance 
Time management 
Carefulness 
Learning 
Response patterns 
Increased knowledge
Contexts of the studies
Types of studies
Results in qualitative 
studies 
● Both positive and negative perceptions 
● Positive experiences in all of the studies 
● The same aspects were most often disliked 
by some respondents in the study such as 
competition → individual differences.
Results in quantitative 
studies
Conclusions
“Does gamification work?” 
● Simple answer: According to the literature 
review, most studies find positive effects from 
gamification to some dependent variables 
● Realistic long answer: Well … 
○ The studies are quite different (different variables, 
methods, etc.) 
○ Methodological shortcomings 
○ Relatively small amount of studies 
○ Conflicting results 
● Most studies report both positive and null 
results
Methodological shortcomings 
- to be avoided 
1) Small sample sizes 
2) No validated psychometric variables 
3) Lack of control groups and thus inability to infer whether 
gamification affected user behavior 
4) Lack of control between implemented motivational 
affordances 
5) Experiment timeframes often short 
6) None of the papers MEASURED variables from all 3 
stages of gamification (affordance -> psych -> behavior) 
7)Publication bias
“Does gamification work?” 
● Further conclusion: 
● its a horrible question to ask - “through 
the disillusionment” 
● We should not care whether gamification 
works
Does drug X work?
Does drug X work?
Gamification
Gamification - what is it? 
Motivational affordances Psychological outcomes Behavioral outcomes 
Points 
Leaderboard 
Badges/Achievements 
Levels 
Story/theme 
Clear goals 
Feedback 
Rewards 
Progress 
Challenge 
Social comparison 
Clear goals 
Intrinsic motivations 
Extrinsic motivations 
Social influence 
Recognition 
Reciprocal benefits 
Attitude 
Motivation 
Happiness 
Flow 
Task involvement 
Social motivation 
Perceived added-value 
Fun 
Engagement 
Enjoyment 
Satisfaction 
Amount of use 
Quality of use 
Quality of completed tasks 
Task completion speed 
Amount of contributions 
Change in type of contributions 
Amount of social interaction 
Amount on contributions 
Intentions to continue using 
Intentions to recommend to others 
Change in energy consumption 
Learning effectiveness 
Task performance 
Time management 
Carefulness 
Learning 
Response patterns 
Increased knowledge
Gamification - what is it? 
Motivational affordances Psychological outcomes Behavioral outcomes 
Points 
Leaderboard 
Badges/Achievements 
Levels 
Story/theme 
Clear goals 
Feedback 
Rewards 
Progress 
Challenge 
Social comparison 
Clear goals 
Intrinsic motivations 
Extrinsic motivations 
Social influence 
Recognition 
Reciprocal benefits 
Attitude 
Motivation 
Happiness 
Flow 
Task involvement 
Social motivation 
Perceived added-value 
Fun 
Engagement 
Enjoyment 
Satisfaction 
Amount of use 
Quality of use 
Quality of completed tasks 
Task completion speed 
Amount of contributions 
Change in type of contributions 
Amount of social interaction 
Amount on contributions 
Intentions to continue using 
Intentions to recommend to others 
Change in energy consumption 
Learning effectiveness 
Task performance 
Time management 
Carefulness 
Learning 
Response patterns 
Increased knowledge
Future(through “Scope of enlightenment” to “Plateau of 
Productivity”) 
● Future looks bright 
● Moving from “disillusionment”, through 
“enlightenment” to realistic “productivity” 
○ No longer questions whether gamification is “bullshit” 
or a “silverbullet” 
○ Not a singular technology 
○ There are no sure things that either work or don’t 
○ It is not about the GAME MECHANICS (alone)
Future
Future - in practice(through “Scope of 
enlightenment” to “Plateau of Productivity”) 
● Read specific (quality) empirical literature 
related to your own case 
● Execute well → “make a good game” 
● Think about all the steps 
○ Which design is used 
○ Which psychological aspects 
○ Which behavioral outcomes 
○ In which context 
○ To whom
Future - in practice(through “Scope of 
enlightenment” to “Plateau of Productivity”) 
● Create your theory about how gamification 
works in your case 
● and test it by yourself (avoid methodological 
pitfalls) 
Motivational affordances Psychological outcomes Behavioral outcomes 
Badges 
Likes 
Enjoyment 
Flow 
Social influence 
Effective work 
Sustainable work 
Friendly working 
environment
Thanks! 
Workshop tomorrow with more about designing 
gamification, theorizing about it and testing it ! 
More research on the topic: 
http://juhohamari.com 
juho.hamari@uta.fi
(How) does Gamification work?
● Social factors related to social influence, 
recognition and reciprocal benefits were 
strong predictors for attitude towards using 
gamification to enhance physical exercise as 
well as for continuing using it 
● The results show that the mere implementation of 
gamification mechanics (social comparison and clear goals) 
does not automatically lead to significant increases in use 
activity in the studied utilitarian service, however, those 
users who actively monitored their own badges and those 
of others showed increased user activity.
(How) does Gamification work?
● Perceptions of usefulness, playfulness and 
enjoyment are higher in the beginning but start to 
decline with prolonged tenure
● Effects of a gamification plugin deployed in a learning management 
system compared to effects of a social networking site in the same 
educational setting. 
● Both resulted in better performance than a traditional e-learning 
approach in terms of academic achievement, but for assessing 
knowledge, the traditional e-learning approach was better. 
● However, participation rates and scores remained low with the new 
tools, although students’ attitudes were positive.
● A large-scale (n > 1000) randomized, controlled experiment on the impact of 
incorporating a badge-based achievement system within an online learning tool 
● Significant positive effect on the quantity of students’ contributions, without a 
corresponding reduction in their quality, as well as on the period of time over 
which students engaged with the tool
● Gamification works for a while 
o Probably due to novelty effects 
● Declines quickly
HOWEVER: 
● Removing gamification results in drop of wanted 
behavior in an enterprise social networking service
Crowding-out-effect 
● The initial (intrinsic motivations) are replaced 
and overpowered by “surrogate” motivations 
● Undermining the initial intrinsic motivations 
● “The rewards become more important than 
the activity”
● Game-based rewards related to a fictional narrative read by teachers 
were provided when the school as a whole met a fruit or vegetable 
consumption goal in the alternating-treatments design. 
● On intervention days, fruit and vegetable consumption increased by 
39% and 33.
● Female undergraduates took a math test in a virtual classroom after 
being exposed to one of three leaderboard conditions: leaderboard 
with men in top positions, leaderboard with women in top positions, 
and no leaderboard condition 
● Participants in the female majority leaderboard condition performed 
more poorly on the test than those in the male leaderboard condition 
● However, they showed a higher level of academic identification than 
those in the male and control conditions
● One course received a gamified curriculum, featuring a leaderboard 
and badges, whereas the other course received the same curriculum 
without the gamified elements. 
● Students in the gamified course showed less motivation, 
satisfaction, and empowerment over time than those in the non-gamified 
class. 
● Effect on final exam scores was mediated by students' levels of 
intrinsic motivation, with students in the gamified course showing 
less motivation and lower final exam scores than the non-gamified 
class.
● Findings suggest that points, levels and leaderboards by 
themselves neither make nor break users’ intrinsic motivation 
in non-game contexts. Instead, it is assumed that they act as 
progress indicators, guiding and enhancing user performance.
● “providing feedback” and “designing for optimal 
challenge” into the collaboration environment, ... 
significant performance gains were realized.
Hamari, J., & Koivisto, J. (2013). Social motivations to use gamification: 
an empirical study of gamifying exercise. In Proceedings of the 21st European 
Conference on Information Systems, Utrecht, Netherlands, June 5–8, 2013. 
● Network exposure, 
● Social influence, 
● Recognition, 
● Reciprocal benefits 
... increased favorable attitude and use 
intentions and WOM 
-> social aspects also 
important for adoption 
of gamification
Social aspects are also important 
●Social features and community are important in 
supporting the gamification (Hamari & Koivisto 
2013)
Novelty effects 
● Intuitively gamification seems interesting for 
users 
● People are curious and will explore the 
gamified elements which results in a 
temporary usage increase 
● However, perceptions of usefulness and 
enjoyment decline with tenure (Koivisto & 
Hamari, forthcoming) as well as use (Farzan 
et al. 2008).
Context 
● Utilitarian vs Hedonic services (Davis et al. 
1992) 
● Involvement of the user: Cognitive vs. 
affective (Zaichowsky 1994) 
● Is the service used for intrinsic or extrinsic 
reason (Deci & Ryan 1985)
If the system is predominantly 
utilitarian, people might have an 
incompatible attitude with ”fun”
Mere addition of ”game-like” 
elements does not automatically 
transform the experience
The goal of the designer differs from what 
games are essentially about – voluntariness, 
autonomy, free choice
Player/user qualities
Types of studies 
Type of study Affordances Relationship Psychological Relationship Behavioral 
Full 
Aff->psych 
Psych->beh 
Aff->beh --------------------------------------------------------------------- 
> 
Aff->beh, psych 
hypo ( ) 
Descriptive
Gamification - what is it? 
● Deterding et al. (2011) 
○ The use of game design in non-game contexts 
● Huotari & Hamari (2012) 
○ The process of enhancing services/systems with 
(motivational) affordances for gameful experiences 
…. as means to increase X behavior 
Motivational 
affordances 
Psychological 
outcomes 
Behavioral 
outcomes
Take-aways (through “Scope of enlightenment” to 
“Plateau of Productivity”) 
● Gamification should not be considered as one technology 
● Don’t give in to the hype! 
○ Who cares if its “bullshit” or a “silverbullet” !? 
● “Does gamification work?” is a bad question 
○ Variety of different technologies 
○ Variety of sought after psychological outcomes 
○ Variety of sought after behavioral outcomes 
○ Variety of contexts 
○ Variety of users 
● Use common sense, read specific (quality) 
empirical literature, execute well, test yourself.
Does gamification work? 
● Example studies on badges: 
○ Dominguez et al. (2013): positive effect on practical assignments, 
possible negative on written assignments 
○ Hakulinen et al. (2013): results depend on badge type 
○ Denny (2013): Only positive effects on level on contributions 
○ Hamari (2013): No automatic effects from being able to compare nor 
from clear goals, BUT for those with higher engagement with badges 
were also more likely to be active 
○ Hamari (2014): Positive effect from badges overall 
○ Fitz-Walter et al. (2011) & Montola et al. (2009) both positive and 
negative consequences
Future(through “Scope of enlightenment” to “Plateau of 
Productivity”) 
● Context of gamification 
○ Hedonic or utilitarian 
○ Sporadic use 
○ Voluntariness / autonomy 
● User traits 
o Gaming motivations 
o Orientation towards goals 
● Psychological mediators 
o How people actually experience gamification 
o Do users’ motivations actually change

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(How) does Gamification work?

  • 3. “Does gamification work?” or why we should not ask the question Citation: Hamari, J., Koivisto, J., & Sarsa, H. (2014). Does Gamification Work? – A Literature Review of Empirical Studies on Gamification. In Proceedings of the 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Hawaii, USA, January 6-9, 2014.
  • 4. Authors Jonna Koivisto http://jonnakoivisto.com jonna.koivisto@uta.fi Harri Sarsa harri.sarsa@aalto.fi
  • 5. Gamification - a trending topic ● Gartner predicts: By 2015, 50% of organizations have gamified their processes ● “Silverbullet” for customer/user engagement - because games are fun, gamified services are also fun ● Companies emerging that provide gamification services/systems ● Everyone wants to know “does gamification really work?”
  • 6. Gamification - an untrending topic? ● “just a marketing gimmick!” ● “exploitative!” ● “bullshit!” ● “extrinsic rewards!” ● “nothing new!” ● “paternalism!” ● “manipulation!”
  • 7. Gamification - an untrending topic ? HYPE UP: Gartner (2011) & IEEE (2014): Most organizations adopt ! HYPE DOWN: Gartner (2012): Most implementations fail ! Again: the idea is that gamification will succeed or fail as a whole
  • 8. Research problem ● Clearly gamification is booming and we have very polarized opinions: either a “Silverbullet” or “Bullshit” ● But what does the research say? “Does it actually work?” ● What kind of research has been done under the flag of gamification?
  • 10. … whatever the case; a mindblowing increase in hits in the literature
  • 11. Step 1: Search hits per db Database Total number of results Peer-reviewed papers EBSCOHost 399 17 Proquest 3423 124 Web of Science 56 56 Scopus 330 293 ScienceDirect 93 93 Google Scholar 3480 N/A ACM Digital library 239 196 AISel 30 30
  • 12. Step 2: Focused searches ● Search words: gamification, gameful, gamif*, motivational affordances from all the databases ● Selection criteria ○ Empirical study ○ Peer-reviewed ○ Full research paper ○ in an international venue ● 24 papers found
  • 14. Motivational affordances ● The list of affordances rather well corresponds to what can be considered the blueprint of gamification
  • 15. Psychological outcomes ● Measured in 9 papers ○ 6 inferential, 3 descriptive ● Such as: Engagement, enjoyment, attitude, social influence, flow, task involvement, etc.
  • 16. Behavioural outcomes ● Measured in 21 papers ○ 15 inferential, 6 descriptive ● Such as: Amount and quality of use/contributions, learning outcomes, intentions to use, task performance
  • 17. Overview of variables Motivational affordances Psychological outcomes Behavioral outcomes Points Leaderboard Badges/Achievements Levels Story/theme Clear goals Feedback Rewards Progress Challenge Social comparison Clear goals Intrinsic motivations Extrinsic motivations Social influence Recognition Reciprocal benefits Attitude Motivation Happiness Flow Task involvement Social motivation Perceived added-value Fun Engagement Enjoyment Satisfaction Amount of use Quality of use Quality of completed tasks Task completion speed Amount of contributions Change in type of contributions Amount of social interaction Amount on contributions Intentions to continue using Intentions to recommend to others Change in energy consumption Learning effectiveness Task performance Time management Carefulness Learning Response patterns Increased knowledge
  • 18. Contexts of the studies
  • 20. Results in qualitative studies ● Both positive and negative perceptions ● Positive experiences in all of the studies ● The same aspects were most often disliked by some respondents in the study such as competition → individual differences.
  • 23. “Does gamification work?” ● Simple answer: According to the literature review, most studies find positive effects from gamification to some dependent variables ● Realistic long answer: Well … ○ The studies are quite different (different variables, methods, etc.) ○ Methodological shortcomings ○ Relatively small amount of studies ○ Conflicting results ● Most studies report both positive and null results
  • 24. Methodological shortcomings - to be avoided 1) Small sample sizes 2) No validated psychometric variables 3) Lack of control groups and thus inability to infer whether gamification affected user behavior 4) Lack of control between implemented motivational affordances 5) Experiment timeframes often short 6) None of the papers MEASURED variables from all 3 stages of gamification (affordance -> psych -> behavior) 7)Publication bias
  • 25. “Does gamification work?” ● Further conclusion: ● its a horrible question to ask - “through the disillusionment” ● We should not care whether gamification works
  • 26. Does drug X work?
  • 27. Does drug X work?
  • 29. Gamification - what is it? Motivational affordances Psychological outcomes Behavioral outcomes Points Leaderboard Badges/Achievements Levels Story/theme Clear goals Feedback Rewards Progress Challenge Social comparison Clear goals Intrinsic motivations Extrinsic motivations Social influence Recognition Reciprocal benefits Attitude Motivation Happiness Flow Task involvement Social motivation Perceived added-value Fun Engagement Enjoyment Satisfaction Amount of use Quality of use Quality of completed tasks Task completion speed Amount of contributions Change in type of contributions Amount of social interaction Amount on contributions Intentions to continue using Intentions to recommend to others Change in energy consumption Learning effectiveness Task performance Time management Carefulness Learning Response patterns Increased knowledge
  • 30. Gamification - what is it? Motivational affordances Psychological outcomes Behavioral outcomes Points Leaderboard Badges/Achievements Levels Story/theme Clear goals Feedback Rewards Progress Challenge Social comparison Clear goals Intrinsic motivations Extrinsic motivations Social influence Recognition Reciprocal benefits Attitude Motivation Happiness Flow Task involvement Social motivation Perceived added-value Fun Engagement Enjoyment Satisfaction Amount of use Quality of use Quality of completed tasks Task completion speed Amount of contributions Change in type of contributions Amount of social interaction Amount on contributions Intentions to continue using Intentions to recommend to others Change in energy consumption Learning effectiveness Task performance Time management Carefulness Learning Response patterns Increased knowledge
  • 31. Future(through “Scope of enlightenment” to “Plateau of Productivity”) ● Future looks bright ● Moving from “disillusionment”, through “enlightenment” to realistic “productivity” ○ No longer questions whether gamification is “bullshit” or a “silverbullet” ○ Not a singular technology ○ There are no sure things that either work or don’t ○ It is not about the GAME MECHANICS (alone)
  • 33. Future - in practice(through “Scope of enlightenment” to “Plateau of Productivity”) ● Read specific (quality) empirical literature related to your own case ● Execute well → “make a good game” ● Think about all the steps ○ Which design is used ○ Which psychological aspects ○ Which behavioral outcomes ○ In which context ○ To whom
  • 34. Future - in practice(through “Scope of enlightenment” to “Plateau of Productivity”) ● Create your theory about how gamification works in your case ● and test it by yourself (avoid methodological pitfalls) Motivational affordances Psychological outcomes Behavioral outcomes Badges Likes Enjoyment Flow Social influence Effective work Sustainable work Friendly working environment
  • 35. Thanks! Workshop tomorrow with more about designing gamification, theorizing about it and testing it ! More research on the topic: http://juhohamari.com juho.hamari@uta.fi
  • 37. ● Social factors related to social influence, recognition and reciprocal benefits were strong predictors for attitude towards using gamification to enhance physical exercise as well as for continuing using it ● The results show that the mere implementation of gamification mechanics (social comparison and clear goals) does not automatically lead to significant increases in use activity in the studied utilitarian service, however, those users who actively monitored their own badges and those of others showed increased user activity.
  • 39. ● Perceptions of usefulness, playfulness and enjoyment are higher in the beginning but start to decline with prolonged tenure
  • 40. ● Effects of a gamification plugin deployed in a learning management system compared to effects of a social networking site in the same educational setting. ● Both resulted in better performance than a traditional e-learning approach in terms of academic achievement, but for assessing knowledge, the traditional e-learning approach was better. ● However, participation rates and scores remained low with the new tools, although students’ attitudes were positive.
  • 41. ● A large-scale (n > 1000) randomized, controlled experiment on the impact of incorporating a badge-based achievement system within an online learning tool ● Significant positive effect on the quantity of students’ contributions, without a corresponding reduction in their quality, as well as on the period of time over which students engaged with the tool
  • 42. ● Gamification works for a while o Probably due to novelty effects ● Declines quickly
  • 43. HOWEVER: ● Removing gamification results in drop of wanted behavior in an enterprise social networking service
  • 44. Crowding-out-effect ● The initial (intrinsic motivations) are replaced and overpowered by “surrogate” motivations ● Undermining the initial intrinsic motivations ● “The rewards become more important than the activity”
  • 45. ● Game-based rewards related to a fictional narrative read by teachers were provided when the school as a whole met a fruit or vegetable consumption goal in the alternating-treatments design. ● On intervention days, fruit and vegetable consumption increased by 39% and 33.
  • 46. ● Female undergraduates took a math test in a virtual classroom after being exposed to one of three leaderboard conditions: leaderboard with men in top positions, leaderboard with women in top positions, and no leaderboard condition ● Participants in the female majority leaderboard condition performed more poorly on the test than those in the male leaderboard condition ● However, they showed a higher level of academic identification than those in the male and control conditions
  • 47. ● One course received a gamified curriculum, featuring a leaderboard and badges, whereas the other course received the same curriculum without the gamified elements. ● Students in the gamified course showed less motivation, satisfaction, and empowerment over time than those in the non-gamified class. ● Effect on final exam scores was mediated by students' levels of intrinsic motivation, with students in the gamified course showing less motivation and lower final exam scores than the non-gamified class.
  • 48. ● Findings suggest that points, levels and leaderboards by themselves neither make nor break users’ intrinsic motivation in non-game contexts. Instead, it is assumed that they act as progress indicators, guiding and enhancing user performance.
  • 49. ● “providing feedback” and “designing for optimal challenge” into the collaboration environment, ... significant performance gains were realized.
  • 50. Hamari, J., & Koivisto, J. (2013). Social motivations to use gamification: an empirical study of gamifying exercise. In Proceedings of the 21st European Conference on Information Systems, Utrecht, Netherlands, June 5–8, 2013. ● Network exposure, ● Social influence, ● Recognition, ● Reciprocal benefits ... increased favorable attitude and use intentions and WOM -> social aspects also important for adoption of gamification
  • 51. Social aspects are also important ●Social features and community are important in supporting the gamification (Hamari & Koivisto 2013)
  • 52. Novelty effects ● Intuitively gamification seems interesting for users ● People are curious and will explore the gamified elements which results in a temporary usage increase ● However, perceptions of usefulness and enjoyment decline with tenure (Koivisto & Hamari, forthcoming) as well as use (Farzan et al. 2008).
  • 53. Context ● Utilitarian vs Hedonic services (Davis et al. 1992) ● Involvement of the user: Cognitive vs. affective (Zaichowsky 1994) ● Is the service used for intrinsic or extrinsic reason (Deci & Ryan 1985)
  • 54. If the system is predominantly utilitarian, people might have an incompatible attitude with ”fun”
  • 55. Mere addition of ”game-like” elements does not automatically transform the experience
  • 56. The goal of the designer differs from what games are essentially about – voluntariness, autonomy, free choice
  • 58. Types of studies Type of study Affordances Relationship Psychological Relationship Behavioral Full Aff->psych Psych->beh Aff->beh --------------------------------------------------------------------- > Aff->beh, psych hypo ( ) Descriptive
  • 59. Gamification - what is it? ● Deterding et al. (2011) ○ The use of game design in non-game contexts ● Huotari & Hamari (2012) ○ The process of enhancing services/systems with (motivational) affordances for gameful experiences …. as means to increase X behavior Motivational affordances Psychological outcomes Behavioral outcomes
  • 60. Take-aways (through “Scope of enlightenment” to “Plateau of Productivity”) ● Gamification should not be considered as one technology ● Don’t give in to the hype! ○ Who cares if its “bullshit” or a “silverbullet” !? ● “Does gamification work?” is a bad question ○ Variety of different technologies ○ Variety of sought after psychological outcomes ○ Variety of sought after behavioral outcomes ○ Variety of contexts ○ Variety of users ● Use common sense, read specific (quality) empirical literature, execute well, test yourself.
  • 61. Does gamification work? ● Example studies on badges: ○ Dominguez et al. (2013): positive effect on practical assignments, possible negative on written assignments ○ Hakulinen et al. (2013): results depend on badge type ○ Denny (2013): Only positive effects on level on contributions ○ Hamari (2013): No automatic effects from being able to compare nor from clear goals, BUT for those with higher engagement with badges were also more likely to be active ○ Hamari (2014): Positive effect from badges overall ○ Fitz-Walter et al. (2011) & Montola et al. (2009) both positive and negative consequences
  • 62. Future(through “Scope of enlightenment” to “Plateau of Productivity”) ● Context of gamification ○ Hedonic or utilitarian ○ Sporadic use ○ Voluntariness / autonomy ● User traits o Gaming motivations o Orientation towards goals ● Psychological mediators o How people actually experience gamification o Do users’ motivations actually change