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Long-Term Athletic
Development and Its
Application to Youth
Weightlifting
Rhodri S. Lloyd, PhD, CSCS*D,1
Jon L. Oliver, PhD,2
Robert W. Meyers, MSc,2
Jeremy A. Moody, PhD,2
and Michael H. Stone, PhD, FNSCA3
1
Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, United Kingdom; 2
Cardiff School of Sport,
Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, United Kingdom; and 3
Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Center of
Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee
S U M M A R Y
CONSIDERABLE CONTROVERSY
AND MISGUIDED INFORMATION
HAS SURROUNDED THE INCLU-
SION OF WEIGHTLIFTING WITHIN
YOUTH-BASED STRENGTH AND
CONDITIONING PROGRAMS TO
DEVELOP STRENGTH, POWER, AND
SPEED. THIS ARTICLE REVIEWS THE
EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT ITS INCLU-
SION AS A SAFE AND EFFECTIVE
MEANS TO ENHANCE ATHLETIC
POTENTIAL. GUIDELINES ARE PRE-
SENTED TO PROVIDE COACHES
WITH A STRUCTURED AND LOGI-
CAL PROGRESSION MODEL,
WHICH IS ASSOCIATED WITH THE
THEORETICAL CONCEPTS UNDER-
PINNING LONG-TERM ATHLETIC
DEVELOPMENT. IT IS HOPED THAT
THIS REVIEW WILL SERVE AS A
USEFUL TOOL TO HELP STRENGTH
AND CONDITIONING COACHES IN-
TEGRATE WEIGHTLIFTING EXER-
CISES WITHIN TRAINING
PROGRAMS OF YOUNG ATHLETES
IN A SAFE AND EFFECTIVE MANNER.
INTRODUCTION
W
eightlifting has long been
used in athletic training pro-
grams to develop strength,
power, and speed in recreational and
elite level athletes. Weightlifting refers
to the official sport (that includes the
snatch and clean and jerk) and should
not be confused weight lifting, resis-
tance training, or powerlifting (54).
Although the training modality is often
used within elite level sport (30,52), its
inclusion within youth-based training
programs has previously been ques-
tioned over concerns surrounding the
safety and well-being of young athletes
(2). However, recent literature suggests
that injuries occurring as a direct result
from generic resistance training and
specific weightlifting activities in youths
is relatively low (10,20,21,31,45,50,55).
Indeed, it is important for physical
educators, sports coaches, and strength
and conditioning coaches to appreciate
and rationalize the dichotomy that
exists between the risk and reward of
weightlifting exercises, as they do in
many other training modalities and
technical preparation strategies. It is
suggested by some of the leading sports
science authorities, such as the National
Strength and Conditioning Association
(NSCA), Australian Strength and Con-
ditioning Association (ASCA), United
Kingdom Strength and Conditioning
Association (UKSCA), and the British
Association of Sport and Exercise Sci-
ences (BASES), that in the presence of
suitably qualified personnel, resistance
training in general is a safe and effective
practice for young athletes to partici-
pate (4,19,49,55).
MISCONSTRUED RISKS AND
UNDERVALUED REWARDS OF
WEIGHTLIFTING MOVEMENTS FOR
YOUTHS
A major concern related to weightlift-
ing movements for young athletes has
revolved around the potential damage
to the epiphyseal growth plate. Al-
though it is true that this structural
compound is weaker than the sur-
rounding connective tissue, there is no
evidence indicating that weightlifting,
and more generally resistance training,
is especially injurious to the epiphyses
(49) or has a direct correlation with
reductions in eventual growth height in
young athletes (18,39).
Conversely, adaptations to the con-
nective tissues and skeletal system that
can be gained from weightlifting when
young athletes are appropriately su-
pervised will better prepare them to
tolerate the impact and ground re-
action forces that they are likely to
K E Y W O R D S :
weightlifting; long-term athlete
development; power; youths;
pediatrics
Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 55
experience within a sporting environ-
ment. Consequently, instead of think-
ing of the risks associated with
‘‘exposing’’ young athletes to weight-
lifting, strength and conditioning
coaches, sports coaches, and physical
educators should focus on the risks of
‘‘not exposing’’ young athletes to the
training mode to better prepare them
for competitive sporting situations.
Researchers have identified an addi-
tional range of risk factors prevalent to
weightlifting (and resistance training in
general), including unsafe environment
and equipment, excessive load and
volume of training, and limited rest
intervals (25,49). However, as the
authors confirm, these risk factors can
be reduced or eliminated with appro-
priate supervision and instruction from
suitably qualified coaches. As a mini-
mum, coaches should have attained
a relevant strength and conditioning
qualification (e.g., NSCA Certified
Strength and Conditioning Specialist,
UKSCA Accredited Strength and Con-
ditioning Coach awards, or USA
Weightlifting certification).
These qualifications only suggest a suit-
able level of knowledge or competency,
and therefore it is essential that the
coach has the relevant pedagogic
experience and communication skills
to work with young athletes of varying
abilities and personalities. This is espe-
cially true when considering the plan-
ning of weightlifting training sessions,
given the acceptance that strength and
conditioning programs designed for
adults (in terms of loading, frequency,
and intensity) should never be super-
imposed on children owing to clear
physiological differences (19,44,46,49).
A growing body of evidence now exists
to question the previous concerns
surrounding the participation of youths
in weightlifting activities (20,24,25).
Although minimal recent research ex-
amining the safety of youth weightlift-
ing exists, it has been established in
retrospective analysis that weightlifting
is safer than many other competitive
sports and activities (31). Conversely,
there seems to be no evidence to prove
that when performed correctly under
the supervision of appropriately quali-
fied personnel, weightlifting carries a
greater risk of injury than other activities
that youths regularly participate in
(24,31). Importantly, research now
shows that young athletes participating
in weightlifting activities can demon-
strate significant gains in strength with
few reports of injury (10,22,50).
Specifically, Pierce et al. (50) high-
lighted that during a year long period
of weightlifting competitions and train-
ing sessions, injuries incurred directly
from weightlifting resulted in no loss of
training days in a sample of 70 boys
and girls (aged 7–16 years), who
regularly completed maximal and
near-maximal lifts in competition. In
addition to the increases in loads lifted
by the individuals, the lack of reported
injuries further informs the potential
gains and relatively low risks associated
with youth weightlifting. Another
study by Byrd et al. (10) monitored
weightlifting performance of young
athletes (aged 12–15 years) over time
and reported significant improvements
in absolute and relative load lifted for
the snatch and clean and jerk and total
load when lifts were combined. Im-
portantly, over the course of 534
competitive lifts and all training ses-
sions, there were no injuries reported
that required medical attention or
forced the athlete to miss training
(10). This provides evidence for the
effectiveness of the training mode
when coached and supervised by
appropriately trained personnel.
It is now recognized that a well-struc-
tured weightlifting program can elicit
positive training adaptations in young
athletes for strength and power (8,9,11).
Currently, there is a lack of published
research investigating the effectiveness of
weightlifting on actual sports perfor-
mance in adolescent athletes. However,
the snatch, clean and jerk, and their
derivative lifts, do replicate the kinetic
and kinematic patterns inherent to lower
limb locomotion, where force application
against the ground via triple extension of
the ankle, knee, and hip is essential
(12,32). The adaptations in strength and
power that result from weightlifting (34)
would suggest potential transfer to
sporting movements such as sprinting,
accelerating, decelerating, and jumping.
However, weightlifting should not only
be viewed from a performance enhance-
ment perspective but also from an injury
prevention standpoint. Previous litera-
ture examining the loading during
landing activities has shown that the
ground reaction forces can be up to
7 times body mass (14,42). When
examining the weightlifting exercises in
more detail, although the initial lift from
the ground to shoulder height (clean) or
to above the head (snatch) involves
primarily concentric muscle activity, the
catch phase of each lift involves drop-
ping underneath the bar to support the
load in either a front squat position for
the clean or an overhead position for the
snatch (Figure 1). During the catch
portion of each lift, the primary muscle
action of the lower limbs will involve
eccentric contraction, synonymous with
the muscle actions involved during
landing activities. Properly performed
catch phases produce a smaller impact
force and are more controllable than
typical jump landings (29). Given the
reduced prelanding neuromuscular effi-
ciency demonstrated by younger chil-
dren (47), and the high incidence of
noncontact anterior cruciate ligament
injuries in young women (15), it is
speculated that weightlifting could be
used as an effective injury prevention
strategy by strengthening the movement
kinematics inherent to landing, cutting,
and deceleration.
LONG-TERM ATHLETE
DEVELOPMENT AND
WEIGHTLIFTING FOR YOUTHS
Following the emergence of the long-
term athlete development (LTAD)
model (5) and its acceptance by a range
of sporting organizations (3,9,16),
strength and conditioning coaches are
encouraged to expose young athletes to
specific training stimuli at various stages
of development, where they are most
susceptible to accelerated adaptation
(5). The model has been designed to
combine successful training methods
alongside a greater scientific basis of
VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 201256
Weightlifting for Youth
pediatric exercise science (5). Specifi-
cally, the model attempts to accommo-
date for variations in biological age, by
objectively assessing rates of change in
stature and body mass (5). Such an
approach enables children to be trained
in accordance with their biological
status as opposed to chronological
age, and it is speculated that with
exposure to the correct training stimulus
during ‘‘windows of opportunity,’’
young athletes can reach a greater
physiological ceiling potential (5). These
windows are typically pre- and post-
pubertal for strength, speed, suppleness,
stamina, and skill, and exist in relation to
the onset of peak height velocity (PHV)
(5). PHVrefers to the maximum velocity
of growth in stature during a growth
spurt and has been used to characterize
developments in performance relative to
the adolescent growth spurt (40).
The prepubertal window is associated
with age-related neural developments,
whereas the postpubertal window is
a result of altered sex hormone concen-
trations, leading to greater muscle mass
and force producing capabilities (27).
Despite an overreliance on anecdotal
evidence, and a lack of peer-reviewed
scientific research to support the exis-
tence of windows of opportunity (27),
the LTAD model at least offers a struc-
tured approach to youth athletic de-
velopment. Indeed, windows of
opportunity may present unique train-
ing opportunities to maximize strength,
power, and speed gains for young
athletes, and thus the LTAD model or
variations can serve as an acceptable
foundation for training young athletes.
Because of the unique physiological
processes associated with the various
development stages of childhood and
adolescence, and to reflect the different
phases of the LTAD model (5), this
article will review some of the training
considerations inherent to the follow-
ing key phases: prepubertal, circa
pubertal, and postpubertal.
PREPUBERTAL TRAINING
FOCUS—‘‘FUNDAMENTALS’’ AND
‘‘LEARNING TO TRAIN’’
Higgs et al. (33) indicate that physical
literacy involves the development of
competency in fundamental movement
skills (FMS; walking, running, and
jumping) and fundamental sport skills
(catching, hopping, and galloping),
which when combined, allows the
young athlete to skillfully move in a
range of sporting situations. Previous
research has stated that between the
ages of 6–8 years and 10–12 years,
periods of peak brain maturation occurs
in children (51), and that children
undergo accelerated adaptation of the
neuromuscular system (8). It is largely
accepted that by this time a number of
the neural pathways for FMS will be
defined, which would suggest that from
a weightlifting perspective, the prepu-
bertal years pose a critical timeframe in
which to introduce and reinforce a wide
variety of techniques. This is reinforced
by previous literature that stated the
starting age for weightlifting training in
some Eastern European countries is
approximately 10 years of age and this
approximate age is being used by some
coaches in the United States (54). With
respect to the LTAD model, this time-
frame would encapsulate the FUNda-
mentals and Learning to Train stages
(5). Weightlifting exercises possess
a heightened coordinative demand in
comparison with more basic resistance
training techniques (26), and therefore
exposing children to weightlifting tech-
niques when brain and neuromuscular
system maturation rates are at their
highest, would seem logical. As a con-
sequence of technical development (and
the lack of adequate testosterone con-
centrations to build lean muscle mass),
strength and conditioning coaches
should expect improvements in
strength and power in prepubertal
children during these stages owing to
more effective and efficient neurological
qualities (7).
CIRCA PUBERTAL TRAINING
FOCUS—‘‘TRAINING TO TRAIN’’
As children approach PHV, strength
and conditioning coaches should be
aware of the likely disproportionate
growth rates of muscle and skeletal
tissue within both males and females.
During this period, those responsible for
the athletic development of young
athletes should be aware of the potential
physical discomfort that children may
experience during rapid stages of non-
linear growth. Additionally, coaches
should be aware of potential break-
downs in motor coordination as a con-
sequence of learning to use longer limbs,
a process that is often referred to as
Figure 1. Front squat position for the clean (left), and an overhead squat position for
the snatch (right).
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 57
‘‘adolescent awkwardness’’ (48). How-
ever, it should be stressed that if external
loadings need to be reduced during this
phase, an element of focus on technical
competency should still be retained
within the program. This period of
natural development would coincide
with the early stages of the ‘‘Training
to Train’’ phase of the LTAD model (5).
POSTPUBERTAL TRAINING
FOCUS—‘‘TRAINING TO COMPETE’’
AND ‘‘TRAINING TO WIN’’
Approximately 12–18 months after
PHV, children will normally experi-
ence peak weight velocity (PWV) (6),
which is a phase of development
characterized by rapid increases in
muscle mass as a result of increasing
sex hormone concentrations (27).
These hormonal changes will result
in developments in muscle size (in-
crease muscle fiber size) and structure
(increased muscle pennation), and
consequently an increased muscle
cross-sectional area resulting in greater
force producing capabilities (38).
Providing that the young athlete can
demonstrate correct and consistent
weightlifting technique, it is suggested
that to further develop athletic poten-
tial, greater external loads are intro-
duced to provide a progressively
overloading stimulus. In relation to the
LTAD model, this stage of development
is synonymous with the latter period of
the Training to Train phase, and the
beginning of the Training to Compete
and Training to Win phases (5). By the
end of the Training to Compete and
Training to Win phases, male and
female athletes are older than 18 years
and would no longer be classified as
adolescent (56). However, it should be
noted that LTAD models must be
flexible to accommodate for individual
differences in physiological maturation
rates, and should not be limited by an
athlete’s chronological age. The 3-time
Olympic gold medallist, Naim Suley-
manoglu, set his first weightlifting world
record at just 15 years old, and had he
been limited to specific stages of an
LTAD model, his achievements in
weightlifting may have been curtailed.
Effective strength and conditioning
coaches should identify such athletes
and allow them to progress more rapidly
through the stages of an LTAD model to
maximize their athletic potential.
COACHING WEIGHTLIFTING
PROGRESSIONS TO YOUNG
ATHLETES
The snatch and clean and jerk are
complex multijoint exercises that re-
quire an intricate sequence of move-
ments to move the bar from the floor to
above the head in 1 (snatch) or 2 (clean
and jerk) movements. When teaching
these lifts to young athletes, it is
imperative that the strength and condi-
tioning coach uses a structured and
logical approach. At all times, especially
in the infancy of learning the lifts, focus
should be placed on technical compe-
tency, as opposed to load lifted. This is
underlined by the suggestion that young
athletes should always start by perform-
ing the lifts with a wooden dowel or
a long piece of PVC piping instead of
a weightlifting bar (26).
Once technical proficiency can be
demonstrated, only then is it recom-
mended that the young athlete uses a
youth-sized weightlifting bar, which
typically weighs 5-10 kg. Coach
expertise and experience should then
be used to decide on when the athlete
is ready to use a full-size weightlifting
bar. Figure 2 shows the progression
from technique work with a dowel to
lifting with a full-size weightlifting bar.
For the purposes of this article, it
was deemed pertinent to formalize a
comprehensive progression model
(Figure 3) that corresponded with the
developmental stages aligned with the
LTAD model (5). It is the intention that
this model will provide coaches with
a strategic approach to developing
weightlifting technique in young ath-
letes. It should be noted that if
a strength and conditioning coach
begins to work with an athlete who
has not completed the earlier stages
(e.g., a 15-year-old who has not been
exposed to the Fundamental Weight-
lifting Skills or Learning Weightlifting
stages), the athlete should enter the
model at the earliest stage as opposed
to beginning at the stage that corre-
sponds to their chronological age.
Because of the age-related neural devel-
opments, it is speculated that these
athletes might transition between the
stages of the model more quickly,
progressing through to the stage of
the model that is more aligned with
their chronological age. In accordance
with previous work that has proposed
a progression schematic for plyometric
training (36), the model contains
approximated age ranges for each phase
reflecting the differential rates of matu-
ration for males and females. Regardless
of age or gender, a young athlete must
demonstrate technical proficiency of
fundamental weightlifting skills before
attempting more complex movements.
STAGE 1: FUNDAMENTAL
WEIGHTLIFTING SKILLS (MALES
6–9 YEARS, FEMALES 6–8 YEARS)
This stage is relevant for children who
demonstrate the emotional maturity to
listen to and follow instructions (36).
Emphasis within this stage should be
placed on developing movement pro-
ficiency and fundamental weightlifting
skills (FWS) within an environment that
develops agility, balance, coordination,
and kinaesthetic and spatial awareness.
A recent review has highlighted the
importance of FMS development for
children and adolescents (37), and it is
generally accepted that FMS mastery is
important for physical, social, and
cognitive development (37). It is sug-
gested that the strength and condition-
ing coach should not view every exercise
within this stage as having to be specific
to weightlifting. Conversely, for young
children, learning to manage body
weight through fun-based activities such
as gymnastics, climbing, and crawling
activities (Figure 4) will all help condi-
tion the child for later technical speci-
ficity. In addition to developing general
strength, strength endurance, metabolic
conditioning, flexibility, and mobility
should all be targeted within the young
athlete’s training program (54). With
appropriate exercise selection, the
strength and conditioning coach should
be able to expose the child to such key
movement competencies, such as lower
VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 201258
Weightlifting for Youth
limb triple extension, scapula stabiliza-
tion, thoracic extension, and core
strength development, in a relatively
unstructured manner. Although the
array of exercises appropriate for chil-
dren at this stage is vast, Table 1 provides
an overview of the possible exercises
that can be integrated within a training
program aiming to develop a range of
key physical competencies linked to the
weightlifting movements. It should be
noted that although the table has been
separated according to body parts for
clarity, many of the exercises would
place multiple demands upon the young
athlete, thereby developing a broader
range of physical literacy. Furthermore,
training sessions within this phase
should take a less structured approach,
with the use of innovative games, to
incorporate the desired movement
Figure 2. Bar size progressions for young athletes: wooden dowel (left), junior bar (middle), full-size bar (right).
Figure 3. Weightlifting long-term progression model.
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 59
patterns without the expense of a fun
and motivating environment for the
young athlete. It is possible to coach
effectively and make significant progres-
sions in posture and control even in such
unstructured environments.
STAGE 2: LEARNING
WEIGHTLIFTING (MALES 9–12
YEARS, FEMALES 8–11 YEARS)
As the young athlete matures and
approaches an age where more struc-
tured training is appropriate, the focus of
training sessions can become more
specific to weightlifting movements.
During this stage, the athlete should be
introduced progressively to the different
phases of each lift (Table 2), with
technical competency serving as the
primary goal at all times. In the authors’
experience, children naturally learn
quickly during this stage and can de-
velop these skills at a fast rate; however,
it must be stressed that the strength and
conditioning coach should not treat
young athletes like miniature adults
and should not progress the child to lift
heavier external loads at the expense of
technical proficiency, thus increasing the
injury potential for the child.
STAGE 3: TRAINING
WEIGHTLIFTING (MALES 12–16
YEARS, FEMALES 11–15 YEARS)
The Training Weightlifting stage is a
developmental stage, whereby strength
and conditioning coaches must pay
attention to key growth and matura-
tional processes. During this stage, it is
expected that young athletes will expe-
rience rapid growth in limb lengths,
which may cause discomfort and/or
momentary loss in motor coordination
(48). Consequently, it is imperative that
during this phase, coaches monitor
growth rates and are sensitive to sudden
interruptions in technical competency.
Coaches may wish to use a maturity
offset estimate to monitor the develop-
ment of their athletes that will indicate
physical maturity in relation to the
onset of PHV (43). The maturity-offset
estimate predicts the biological age of
an individual in years from PHVand can
be calculated by using chronological
age, standing height, sitting height, and
leg length within regression analyses
(43). The benefit of such an approach is
that it involves simple and noninvasive
procedures, which should be available
to all coaches. However, caution is
warranted when implementing the
maturity offset, owing to the measure-
ment error associated with the measure
of 61 year 95% of the time (43).
Alternatively, if working with the same
athletes over a prolonged period of
time, coaches in cooperation with a
physician may simply monitor growth
rates of the stature, limbs, and trunk to
identify when a growth spurt is begin-
ning, is at its peak, and is coming toward
an end. During this stage, program
content may fluctuate between techni-
cal competency and external loading;
however, the safety of the athlete must
be paramount at all times. As children
approach the end of this stage, it is likely
that they will have experienced PHV
Figure 4. Basic fundamental weightlifting skill exercises: start and end position of a ÔsupermanÕ exercise (top, left to right), and start
and end position of a ÔcrawlingÕ exercise (bottom, left to right).
VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 201260
Weightlifting for Youth
and will be undergoing PWV, which
refers to the maximal rate of change in
body mass during a growth spurt,
typically owing to increased muscle mass
(40). As such, the athlete can be exposed
to heavier external loads, as PWV
naturally leads to lean muscle mass de-
velopment owing to increases in muscle-
building hormonal concentrations (40).
It is important to minimize the potential
of long-term dysfunction by coaching the
athlete, and not being misled by excep-
tional sports performances produced by
athletes within this age group.
STAGE 4: PERFORMANCE
WEIGHTLIFTING (MALES 16+
YEARS, FEMALES 15+ YEARS)
The final stage represents the period
whereby the young athlete can be
exposed to more advanced training
program design, focused on both tech-
nical expertise and external loading. It
should be noted that although earlier
stages are more technique focused,
training during these times should still
be structured and follow a periodized
plan. During the Performance Weight-
lifting phase, and to ensure that the
movement velocity is appropriate to the
desired training goal (i.e., speed-
strength or strength-speed), motion
capture devices and accelerometers
may be used to monitor bar velocity
and power outputs (35) to ensure the
maintenance of repetition velocity and
rate of force development. Additionally,
the use of video analysis is encouraged
to monitor technique as technical
inconsistencies become less obvious.
WEIGHTLIFTING PROGRAM
DESIGN FOR YOUNG ATHLETES
When designing weightlifting pro-
grams for young athletes, the variables
of volume, intensity, repetition veloc-
ity, frequency, and recovery must be
considered to ensure optimal athletic
development, and minimize injury risk.
The authors wish to stress that the
following recommendations should be
applied within the context of the
individual needs of the athlete, and
that the following training variables
should at all times be individualized
within a training program. See Table 3
for a summary of suggested training
prescription guidelines.
VOLUME
For young athletes entering the FWS
stage, the volume of exercises would
commonly be higher in comparison
with the later stages owing to the
relatively lower impact forces and joint
loadings experienced during basic
bodyweight movements. The purpose
of the FWS stage is to provide children
with a wide range of movement stimuli,
and therefore for a given exercise,
coaches are advised to prescribe ap-
proximately 2–4 sets of 6–12 repetitions.
This should provide the child with
sufficient exposure to aid motor control
development while serving as a suitable
volume for physical conditioning.
For the purposes of concentration
retention and physical literacy devel-
opment, it is suggested that a range
of exercises should be given within
Table 1
Example of exercises to develop fundamental weightlifting skills
Upper limb Trunk Lower limb
Pre-weightlifting
power developmentMobility Stability Mobility Stability Mobility Stability
Arm circles Scapula
push ups
Partner medicine
ball rotations
‘‘Deadbugs’’ ‘‘Inch worms’’ SL balances CMJ and stick
Arm swings
(multi-
directional)
Bunny hops Partner medicine
ball ‘‘over and
unders’’
‘‘Superman’’ Spiderman
crawls
Forward lunge SL CMJ and stick
Wall slides and
doorframe
slides
Forward
crawling
Sitting T-spine
rotations
Partner/band
squats
Under and
overs
cage walks
Reverse lunge
to balance
CMJ for maximum
height
Wide arm OH
squat/lunge
Sideways
crawling
Spiderman
crawl with
rotation
Crawling
‘‘Superman’’
balances
Arabesque Lateral lunge CMJ with shrug for
maximum height
Y, T, W, L’s Backward
crawling
Lunge with
rotation
Partner/wall
bracing
Super wide
monster
band walks
SL squat
and reaches
Box jumps
Behind neck
pressing
Mini-band
hand slides
Foam roller
supported
side-lying
extension-
rotations
Medicine ball
balance
walks
Split squat Multi-directional
mini-band
walks
OH medicine
ball toss
CMJ = countermovement jumps; OH = overhead; SL = single leg.
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 61
a single session (6–10). However, it
should be noted that if children are
exposed to very basic introductory
weightlifting exercises within this stage
(i.e., an overhead squat with wooden
dowel), then multiple repetitions might
be counterproductive for motor con-
trol development. Instead, it is
recommended that children perform
single repetitions and are provided
with real-time feedback to ensure safe
and correct movement development.
Table 3
Suggested guidelines for training session prescription
Training variable Fundamental
weightlifting skillsa
Learning
weightlifting
Training
weightlifting
Performance
weightlifting
Suggested age ranges (y) Males: 6–9,
Females: 6–8
Males: 9–12,
Females: 8–11
Males: 12–16,
Females: 11–15
Males: 16+,
Females: 15+
Volume (total repetitionsb
) 36–24 30–24 24–15 18–6
Total number of exercises per session 6–10 3–6 3–6 2–5
Intensity (%1RM) Body weight 30–50 50–85 85–100
Repetition velocity (speed of movement) Moderate–fast Moderate–fast Fast–maximal Maximal
Frequency (sessions per week) 1–2 1–2 2–4 2–5
Recovery (hours in between sessions) 72 72–48 48 48–24
a
The values for FWS do not necessarily equate to designated weightlifting progressions, but rather broad-ranging exercises to develop physical
literacy.
b
The total number of repetitions can be divided between different configurations of sets and repetitions based on the goal of the training
session, and phase of the periodized plan.
Table 2
Suggested top-down progression model for weightlifting exercises (appropriate for Learning Weightlifting, Training
Weightlifting and Performance Weightlifting)
Snatch Clean Jerk
Behind neck press Front squat Military press
Overhead squat Vertical jump and landing mechanics Push press
Overhead squat behind neck press Drop clean Push jerk
Vertical jump and landing mechanics Power position-jump shrug Overhead split squat
Drop snatch Power position-second pull Split jerk footwork line drill
Power position-jump shrug Hang high clean pull Split jerk footwork line drill with dowel
Power position-second pull Hang cleana
Split jerk
Hang high snatch pull First pull Clean and jerk
Hang snatcha
Clean from below kneeb
First pull Clean from low block
Snatch from below kneeb
Clean from floor
Snatch from low block
Snatch from floor
a
Stage at which the ‘‘transition’’ phase is introduced to the individual.
b
Stage at which the double knee bend is introduced to the individual.
VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 201262
Weightlifting for Youth
When prescribing training volume for
the Learning Weightlifting stage, the
current article proposes performing
multiple sets of 3–5 repetitions, volumes
that have previously been suggested as
most effective for young athletes to
learn the snatch and clean and jerk (26).
However, within each set, individual
repetitions should be interspersed with
feedback because incorrect form within
the first repetition of a set will typically
lead to poor technique for the re-
mainder of the set. Table 3 shows that
with an increase in training age as
children move from Learning Weight-
lifting through to Performance Weight-
lifting, total volume for a given exercise
and total number of exercises within
a single session both reduce; however,
these are in accordance with a concom-
itant increase in training intensity.
INTENSITY
For children entering the progression
schematic, body weight will serve as the
prescribed training intensity. This is to
ensure that young athletes do not
attempt loaded exercises before move-
ment competency can be demonstrated.
However, it is suggested that some
loading may be necessary to ‘‘feel’’ the
bar, even in children, when considering
learning proficient weightlifting tech-
nique. On entering the Learning
Weightlifting phase, it is suggested that
the intensity of training sessions should
be based upon percentages of the
athlete’s 1 repetition maximum (1RM).
Despite previous concerns, maximal
strength testing in children (albeit
using fixed-resistance training ma-
chines) has been proven to be safe
and reliable, provided appropriate
protocols are implemented (23). Al-
ternative means to predict resistance
may include the Daily Adjusted
Progressive Resistance Exercise or
the Oddvar Holten Diagram Curve;
however, the 1RM method is most
commonly used. It should be acknow-
ledged that methods of predicting
1RM values from higher repetition
ranges possess less accuracy, in
particular when repetition ranges
exceed 10 (23). The decision on which
method to use should be based on the
training age, ability, and experience of
the young athlete; however, coaches
and young athletes should at all times
ensure that safety is paramount. Using
percentages of 1RM loads is deemed
preferable as opposed to an athlete
lifting the most weight they can for
a given set of repetitions (e.g., 10RM),
to avoid constantly training the ath-
lete to failure. Previous reviews have
highlighted that such an approach
runs the risk of decreasing resting
levels of testosterone and increasing
resting cortisol concentrations (albeit
for adult populations), which are
counterproductive for strength and
power gains (53,57). Especially when
working with young athletes, it is
recommended that intensity is never
increased at the expense of technical
competency. Table 3 shows that
training intensity increases in accor-
dance with increasing training age,
with athletes in the Performance
Weightlifting category regularly lifting
loads of 85–100% 1RM.
REPETITION VELOCITY
Due to rate of force development being
integral to explosive weightlifting per-
formance (34,54), it is imperative that
high repetition velocity is maintained.
For this reason, it is suggested that
coaches should integrate fast velocity
movements within every stage of the
progression model. Although certain
exercises within the FWS phase may
require slow, controlled movements,
an element of high-velocity move-
ments should still exist with basic
vertical jumps serving as a suitable
example. As athletes progress through
the progression model, and enter the
Training Weightlifting and Perfor-
mance Weightlifting phases, the coach
should expose the athlete to heavy
loads ($80% 1RM) to maximize power
output, maximal strength, muscle
cross-sectional area, and maximal neu-
ral activation (13). For experienced
athletes in the Performance Weightlift-
ing stage, the use of supramaximal
loads may also be used to further
stimulate maximal motor unit recruit-
ment (e.g., first pulls performed with
a 120% 1RM load). However, to
expose the neuromuscular system to
a range of stimuli across the force–
velocity spectrum, and to avoid over-
training symptoms (28), it is suggested
that such loadings are used for brief
periods of time within an overall
periodized program.
FREQUENCY
In accordance with previous literature,
it is proposed that training frequencies
for youths should not exceed 2–3
one-hour weightlifting sessions per
week (26). However, to maintain per-
formance quality and athlete enthusiasm,
it is reasonable to suggest that multiple
sessions of shorter duration (i.e., 3–5, 30-
to 40-minute sessions per week) could be
an alternative approach, especially with
younger athletes. As athletes progress
toward the end of the progression
model, training frequency may rise up
to approximately 5 sessions per week,
dependent on the training block within
a periodized training program. However,
the volume loads associated with such
programs would only be conducive to
individual athletes of the appropriate
training age, and such frequencies should
never be superimposed on athletes of
a young training age.
RECOVERY
Due to weightlifting exercises and
their derivative lifts being whole-
body, multijoint multi-muscle move-
ments (32), the need for adequate
intra- and intersession rest is essential.
As is common with generic resistance
training methods for youths, an
intersession rest period of 48 hours
is recommended (19); however, for
athletes within the Performance
Weightlifting phase, the minimum rest
period may on occasions be reduced.
Although children may not show
symptoms of delayed onset of muscle
soreness because of their reduced
body mass and increased pliability of
muscle tissue (17), they will likely
require more recovery time between
consecutive training sessions to adapt
to training-induced physiological
stresses, and to allow for natural
growth processes to occur (1,46).
Therefore, it may not be as easy to
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 63
monitor training readiness therefore
in youths, and consequently it is
recommended that the strength and
conditioning coach should always use
a common sense and flexible ap-
proach to training program design.
One option available to the coach
could be the use of the Profile of
Mood States questionnaire, which
has proven useful for assessing and
preventing overtraining in young
athletes (41). However, such ques-
tionnaires do not reflect the extent of
fatigue at a neuromuscular level,
rather they provide only perceptions
of fatigue. Consequently, neuromus-
cular monitoring, possibly via mea-
surement of the reactive strength
index (ratio of jump height and
ground contact time) during a re-
bound-based test, could be a relatively
simple method of quantifying actual
neuromuscular fatigue (36). Regard-
less of the monitoring tool selected,
coaches should be aware of the
symptoms of overtraining, such as:
decreased performance, persistent
fatigue, susceptibility to upper re-
spiratory tract infections, disruptive
sleep patterns, mood swings, and
sudden weight loss (1,41).
SUMMARY AND PRACTICAL
APPLICATIONS
The current article has reviewed the
suitability of weightlifting for long-
term athletic development. Despite
previous misconceptions, weightlift-
ing for youths is a safe and effective
training modality to enhance physical
literacy, muscular strength, and ex-
plosive power. This article has also
speculated on potential injury pre-
vention benefits that weightlifting
may provide to young athletes and
confirms that the previously reported
risk factors can be reduced or elimi-
nated with appropriate supervision
and instruction from appropriately
qualified coaches. It would appear
that pre-pubertal age-related neural
developments and postpubertal matu-
rity-related increases in sex androgen
concentrations might offer suitable
windows of adaptation to maximize
athletic gains through weightlifting.
The progression model provided
within the article offers coaches a log-
ical and sequential development tool
to follow, which is in accordance to
the theories of long-term athletic
development. The training prescrip-
tion guidelines included within the
model should always be integrated
with the needs of the individual
athlete in mind, and at no stage should
strength and conditioning coaches
treat children like miniature adults.
Rhodri S. Lloyd
is the Program
Director for the
Sport Strength and
Conditioning de-
grees at the Uni-
versity of
Gloucestershire.
Jon L. Oliver is
a lecturer in Sport
and Exercise
Physiology at the
University of
Wales Institute
Cardiff.
Robert W.
Meyers is a se-
nior lecturer in
Strength and Con-
ditioning, Reha-
bilitation and
Massage at the
University of
Wales Institute Cardiff.
Jeremy Moody
is Program Direc-
tor of the Strength
and Conditioning,
Rehabilitation and
Massage degrees at
the University of
Wales Institute
Cardiff.
Michael H.
Stone is the
Exercise and
Sports Science
Laboratory
Director in the
Department of
Kinesiology,
Leisure, and Sport
Sciences at East Tennessee State
University.
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VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 201266
Weightlifting for Youth

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Long-Term Athletic Development and Its Application to Youth Weightlifting

  • 1. Long-Term Athletic Development and Its Application to Youth Weightlifting Rhodri S. Lloyd, PhD, CSCS*D,1 Jon L. Oliver, PhD,2 Robert W. Meyers, MSc,2 Jeremy A. Moody, PhD,2 and Michael H. Stone, PhD, FNSCA3 1 Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, United Kingdom; 2 Cardiff School of Sport, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff, United Kingdom; and 3 Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee S U M M A R Y CONSIDERABLE CONTROVERSY AND MISGUIDED INFORMATION HAS SURROUNDED THE INCLU- SION OF WEIGHTLIFTING WITHIN YOUTH-BASED STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING PROGRAMS TO DEVELOP STRENGTH, POWER, AND SPEED. THIS ARTICLE REVIEWS THE EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT ITS INCLU- SION AS A SAFE AND EFFECTIVE MEANS TO ENHANCE ATHLETIC POTENTIAL. GUIDELINES ARE PRE- SENTED TO PROVIDE COACHES WITH A STRUCTURED AND LOGI- CAL PROGRESSION MODEL, WHICH IS ASSOCIATED WITH THE THEORETICAL CONCEPTS UNDER- PINNING LONG-TERM ATHLETIC DEVELOPMENT. IT IS HOPED THAT THIS REVIEW WILL SERVE AS A USEFUL TOOL TO HELP STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING COACHES IN- TEGRATE WEIGHTLIFTING EXER- CISES WITHIN TRAINING PROGRAMS OF YOUNG ATHLETES IN A SAFE AND EFFECTIVE MANNER. INTRODUCTION W eightlifting has long been used in athletic training pro- grams to develop strength, power, and speed in recreational and elite level athletes. Weightlifting refers to the official sport (that includes the snatch and clean and jerk) and should not be confused weight lifting, resis- tance training, or powerlifting (54). Although the training modality is often used within elite level sport (30,52), its inclusion within youth-based training programs has previously been ques- tioned over concerns surrounding the safety and well-being of young athletes (2). However, recent literature suggests that injuries occurring as a direct result from generic resistance training and specific weightlifting activities in youths is relatively low (10,20,21,31,45,50,55). Indeed, it is important for physical educators, sports coaches, and strength and conditioning coaches to appreciate and rationalize the dichotomy that exists between the risk and reward of weightlifting exercises, as they do in many other training modalities and technical preparation strategies. It is suggested by some of the leading sports science authorities, such as the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA), Australian Strength and Con- ditioning Association (ASCA), United Kingdom Strength and Conditioning Association (UKSCA), and the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sci- ences (BASES), that in the presence of suitably qualified personnel, resistance training in general is a safe and effective practice for young athletes to partici- pate (4,19,49,55). MISCONSTRUED RISKS AND UNDERVALUED REWARDS OF WEIGHTLIFTING MOVEMENTS FOR YOUTHS A major concern related to weightlift- ing movements for young athletes has revolved around the potential damage to the epiphyseal growth plate. Al- though it is true that this structural compound is weaker than the sur- rounding connective tissue, there is no evidence indicating that weightlifting, and more generally resistance training, is especially injurious to the epiphyses (49) or has a direct correlation with reductions in eventual growth height in young athletes (18,39). Conversely, adaptations to the con- nective tissues and skeletal system that can be gained from weightlifting when young athletes are appropriately su- pervised will better prepare them to tolerate the impact and ground re- action forces that they are likely to K E Y W O R D S : weightlifting; long-term athlete development; power; youths; pediatrics Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 55
  • 2. experience within a sporting environ- ment. Consequently, instead of think- ing of the risks associated with ‘‘exposing’’ young athletes to weight- lifting, strength and conditioning coaches, sports coaches, and physical educators should focus on the risks of ‘‘not exposing’’ young athletes to the training mode to better prepare them for competitive sporting situations. Researchers have identified an addi- tional range of risk factors prevalent to weightlifting (and resistance training in general), including unsafe environment and equipment, excessive load and volume of training, and limited rest intervals (25,49). However, as the authors confirm, these risk factors can be reduced or eliminated with appro- priate supervision and instruction from suitably qualified coaches. As a mini- mum, coaches should have attained a relevant strength and conditioning qualification (e.g., NSCA Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist, UKSCA Accredited Strength and Con- ditioning Coach awards, or USA Weightlifting certification). These qualifications only suggest a suit- able level of knowledge or competency, and therefore it is essential that the coach has the relevant pedagogic experience and communication skills to work with young athletes of varying abilities and personalities. This is espe- cially true when considering the plan- ning of weightlifting training sessions, given the acceptance that strength and conditioning programs designed for adults (in terms of loading, frequency, and intensity) should never be super- imposed on children owing to clear physiological differences (19,44,46,49). A growing body of evidence now exists to question the previous concerns surrounding the participation of youths in weightlifting activities (20,24,25). Although minimal recent research ex- amining the safety of youth weightlift- ing exists, it has been established in retrospective analysis that weightlifting is safer than many other competitive sports and activities (31). Conversely, there seems to be no evidence to prove that when performed correctly under the supervision of appropriately quali- fied personnel, weightlifting carries a greater risk of injury than other activities that youths regularly participate in (24,31). Importantly, research now shows that young athletes participating in weightlifting activities can demon- strate significant gains in strength with few reports of injury (10,22,50). Specifically, Pierce et al. (50) high- lighted that during a year long period of weightlifting competitions and train- ing sessions, injuries incurred directly from weightlifting resulted in no loss of training days in a sample of 70 boys and girls (aged 7–16 years), who regularly completed maximal and near-maximal lifts in competition. In addition to the increases in loads lifted by the individuals, the lack of reported injuries further informs the potential gains and relatively low risks associated with youth weightlifting. Another study by Byrd et al. (10) monitored weightlifting performance of young athletes (aged 12–15 years) over time and reported significant improvements in absolute and relative load lifted for the snatch and clean and jerk and total load when lifts were combined. Im- portantly, over the course of 534 competitive lifts and all training ses- sions, there were no injuries reported that required medical attention or forced the athlete to miss training (10). This provides evidence for the effectiveness of the training mode when coached and supervised by appropriately trained personnel. It is now recognized that a well-struc- tured weightlifting program can elicit positive training adaptations in young athletes for strength and power (8,9,11). Currently, there is a lack of published research investigating the effectiveness of weightlifting on actual sports perfor- mance in adolescent athletes. However, the snatch, clean and jerk, and their derivative lifts, do replicate the kinetic and kinematic patterns inherent to lower limb locomotion, where force application against the ground via triple extension of the ankle, knee, and hip is essential (12,32). The adaptations in strength and power that result from weightlifting (34) would suggest potential transfer to sporting movements such as sprinting, accelerating, decelerating, and jumping. However, weightlifting should not only be viewed from a performance enhance- ment perspective but also from an injury prevention standpoint. Previous litera- ture examining the loading during landing activities has shown that the ground reaction forces can be up to 7 times body mass (14,42). When examining the weightlifting exercises in more detail, although the initial lift from the ground to shoulder height (clean) or to above the head (snatch) involves primarily concentric muscle activity, the catch phase of each lift involves drop- ping underneath the bar to support the load in either a front squat position for the clean or an overhead position for the snatch (Figure 1). During the catch portion of each lift, the primary muscle action of the lower limbs will involve eccentric contraction, synonymous with the muscle actions involved during landing activities. Properly performed catch phases produce a smaller impact force and are more controllable than typical jump landings (29). Given the reduced prelanding neuromuscular effi- ciency demonstrated by younger chil- dren (47), and the high incidence of noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injuries in young women (15), it is speculated that weightlifting could be used as an effective injury prevention strategy by strengthening the movement kinematics inherent to landing, cutting, and deceleration. LONG-TERM ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT AND WEIGHTLIFTING FOR YOUTHS Following the emergence of the long- term athlete development (LTAD) model (5) and its acceptance by a range of sporting organizations (3,9,16), strength and conditioning coaches are encouraged to expose young athletes to specific training stimuli at various stages of development, where they are most susceptible to accelerated adaptation (5). The model has been designed to combine successful training methods alongside a greater scientific basis of VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 201256 Weightlifting for Youth
  • 3. pediatric exercise science (5). Specifi- cally, the model attempts to accommo- date for variations in biological age, by objectively assessing rates of change in stature and body mass (5). Such an approach enables children to be trained in accordance with their biological status as opposed to chronological age, and it is speculated that with exposure to the correct training stimulus during ‘‘windows of opportunity,’’ young athletes can reach a greater physiological ceiling potential (5). These windows are typically pre- and post- pubertal for strength, speed, suppleness, stamina, and skill, and exist in relation to the onset of peak height velocity (PHV) (5). PHVrefers to the maximum velocity of growth in stature during a growth spurt and has been used to characterize developments in performance relative to the adolescent growth spurt (40). The prepubertal window is associated with age-related neural developments, whereas the postpubertal window is a result of altered sex hormone concen- trations, leading to greater muscle mass and force producing capabilities (27). Despite an overreliance on anecdotal evidence, and a lack of peer-reviewed scientific research to support the exis- tence of windows of opportunity (27), the LTAD model at least offers a struc- tured approach to youth athletic de- velopment. Indeed, windows of opportunity may present unique train- ing opportunities to maximize strength, power, and speed gains for young athletes, and thus the LTAD model or variations can serve as an acceptable foundation for training young athletes. Because of the unique physiological processes associated with the various development stages of childhood and adolescence, and to reflect the different phases of the LTAD model (5), this article will review some of the training considerations inherent to the follow- ing key phases: prepubertal, circa pubertal, and postpubertal. PREPUBERTAL TRAINING FOCUS—‘‘FUNDAMENTALS’’ AND ‘‘LEARNING TO TRAIN’’ Higgs et al. (33) indicate that physical literacy involves the development of competency in fundamental movement skills (FMS; walking, running, and jumping) and fundamental sport skills (catching, hopping, and galloping), which when combined, allows the young athlete to skillfully move in a range of sporting situations. Previous research has stated that between the ages of 6–8 years and 10–12 years, periods of peak brain maturation occurs in children (51), and that children undergo accelerated adaptation of the neuromuscular system (8). It is largely accepted that by this time a number of the neural pathways for FMS will be defined, which would suggest that from a weightlifting perspective, the prepu- bertal years pose a critical timeframe in which to introduce and reinforce a wide variety of techniques. This is reinforced by previous literature that stated the starting age for weightlifting training in some Eastern European countries is approximately 10 years of age and this approximate age is being used by some coaches in the United States (54). With respect to the LTAD model, this time- frame would encapsulate the FUNda- mentals and Learning to Train stages (5). Weightlifting exercises possess a heightened coordinative demand in comparison with more basic resistance training techniques (26), and therefore exposing children to weightlifting tech- niques when brain and neuromuscular system maturation rates are at their highest, would seem logical. As a con- sequence of technical development (and the lack of adequate testosterone con- centrations to build lean muscle mass), strength and conditioning coaches should expect improvements in strength and power in prepubertal children during these stages owing to more effective and efficient neurological qualities (7). CIRCA PUBERTAL TRAINING FOCUS—‘‘TRAINING TO TRAIN’’ As children approach PHV, strength and conditioning coaches should be aware of the likely disproportionate growth rates of muscle and skeletal tissue within both males and females. During this period, those responsible for the athletic development of young athletes should be aware of the potential physical discomfort that children may experience during rapid stages of non- linear growth. Additionally, coaches should be aware of potential break- downs in motor coordination as a con- sequence of learning to use longer limbs, a process that is often referred to as Figure 1. Front squat position for the clean (left), and an overhead squat position for the snatch (right). Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 57
  • 4. ‘‘adolescent awkwardness’’ (48). How- ever, it should be stressed that if external loadings need to be reduced during this phase, an element of focus on technical competency should still be retained within the program. This period of natural development would coincide with the early stages of the ‘‘Training to Train’’ phase of the LTAD model (5). POSTPUBERTAL TRAINING FOCUS—‘‘TRAINING TO COMPETE’’ AND ‘‘TRAINING TO WIN’’ Approximately 12–18 months after PHV, children will normally experi- ence peak weight velocity (PWV) (6), which is a phase of development characterized by rapid increases in muscle mass as a result of increasing sex hormone concentrations (27). These hormonal changes will result in developments in muscle size (in- crease muscle fiber size) and structure (increased muscle pennation), and consequently an increased muscle cross-sectional area resulting in greater force producing capabilities (38). Providing that the young athlete can demonstrate correct and consistent weightlifting technique, it is suggested that to further develop athletic poten- tial, greater external loads are intro- duced to provide a progressively overloading stimulus. In relation to the LTAD model, this stage of development is synonymous with the latter period of the Training to Train phase, and the beginning of the Training to Compete and Training to Win phases (5). By the end of the Training to Compete and Training to Win phases, male and female athletes are older than 18 years and would no longer be classified as adolescent (56). However, it should be noted that LTAD models must be flexible to accommodate for individual differences in physiological maturation rates, and should not be limited by an athlete’s chronological age. The 3-time Olympic gold medallist, Naim Suley- manoglu, set his first weightlifting world record at just 15 years old, and had he been limited to specific stages of an LTAD model, his achievements in weightlifting may have been curtailed. Effective strength and conditioning coaches should identify such athletes and allow them to progress more rapidly through the stages of an LTAD model to maximize their athletic potential. COACHING WEIGHTLIFTING PROGRESSIONS TO YOUNG ATHLETES The snatch and clean and jerk are complex multijoint exercises that re- quire an intricate sequence of move- ments to move the bar from the floor to above the head in 1 (snatch) or 2 (clean and jerk) movements. When teaching these lifts to young athletes, it is imperative that the strength and condi- tioning coach uses a structured and logical approach. At all times, especially in the infancy of learning the lifts, focus should be placed on technical compe- tency, as opposed to load lifted. This is underlined by the suggestion that young athletes should always start by perform- ing the lifts with a wooden dowel or a long piece of PVC piping instead of a weightlifting bar (26). Once technical proficiency can be demonstrated, only then is it recom- mended that the young athlete uses a youth-sized weightlifting bar, which typically weighs 5-10 kg. Coach expertise and experience should then be used to decide on when the athlete is ready to use a full-size weightlifting bar. Figure 2 shows the progression from technique work with a dowel to lifting with a full-size weightlifting bar. For the purposes of this article, it was deemed pertinent to formalize a comprehensive progression model (Figure 3) that corresponded with the developmental stages aligned with the LTAD model (5). It is the intention that this model will provide coaches with a strategic approach to developing weightlifting technique in young ath- letes. It should be noted that if a strength and conditioning coach begins to work with an athlete who has not completed the earlier stages (e.g., a 15-year-old who has not been exposed to the Fundamental Weight- lifting Skills or Learning Weightlifting stages), the athlete should enter the model at the earliest stage as opposed to beginning at the stage that corre- sponds to their chronological age. Because of the age-related neural devel- opments, it is speculated that these athletes might transition between the stages of the model more quickly, progressing through to the stage of the model that is more aligned with their chronological age. In accordance with previous work that has proposed a progression schematic for plyometric training (36), the model contains approximated age ranges for each phase reflecting the differential rates of matu- ration for males and females. Regardless of age or gender, a young athlete must demonstrate technical proficiency of fundamental weightlifting skills before attempting more complex movements. STAGE 1: FUNDAMENTAL WEIGHTLIFTING SKILLS (MALES 6–9 YEARS, FEMALES 6–8 YEARS) This stage is relevant for children who demonstrate the emotional maturity to listen to and follow instructions (36). Emphasis within this stage should be placed on developing movement pro- ficiency and fundamental weightlifting skills (FWS) within an environment that develops agility, balance, coordination, and kinaesthetic and spatial awareness. A recent review has highlighted the importance of FMS development for children and adolescents (37), and it is generally accepted that FMS mastery is important for physical, social, and cognitive development (37). It is sug- gested that the strength and condition- ing coach should not view every exercise within this stage as having to be specific to weightlifting. Conversely, for young children, learning to manage body weight through fun-based activities such as gymnastics, climbing, and crawling activities (Figure 4) will all help condi- tion the child for later technical speci- ficity. In addition to developing general strength, strength endurance, metabolic conditioning, flexibility, and mobility should all be targeted within the young athlete’s training program (54). With appropriate exercise selection, the strength and conditioning coach should be able to expose the child to such key movement competencies, such as lower VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 201258 Weightlifting for Youth
  • 5. limb triple extension, scapula stabiliza- tion, thoracic extension, and core strength development, in a relatively unstructured manner. Although the array of exercises appropriate for chil- dren at this stage is vast, Table 1 provides an overview of the possible exercises that can be integrated within a training program aiming to develop a range of key physical competencies linked to the weightlifting movements. It should be noted that although the table has been separated according to body parts for clarity, many of the exercises would place multiple demands upon the young athlete, thereby developing a broader range of physical literacy. Furthermore, training sessions within this phase should take a less structured approach, with the use of innovative games, to incorporate the desired movement Figure 2. Bar size progressions for young athletes: wooden dowel (left), junior bar (middle), full-size bar (right). Figure 3. Weightlifting long-term progression model. Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 59
  • 6. patterns without the expense of a fun and motivating environment for the young athlete. It is possible to coach effectively and make significant progres- sions in posture and control even in such unstructured environments. STAGE 2: LEARNING WEIGHTLIFTING (MALES 9–12 YEARS, FEMALES 8–11 YEARS) As the young athlete matures and approaches an age where more struc- tured training is appropriate, the focus of training sessions can become more specific to weightlifting movements. During this stage, the athlete should be introduced progressively to the different phases of each lift (Table 2), with technical competency serving as the primary goal at all times. In the authors’ experience, children naturally learn quickly during this stage and can de- velop these skills at a fast rate; however, it must be stressed that the strength and conditioning coach should not treat young athletes like miniature adults and should not progress the child to lift heavier external loads at the expense of technical proficiency, thus increasing the injury potential for the child. STAGE 3: TRAINING WEIGHTLIFTING (MALES 12–16 YEARS, FEMALES 11–15 YEARS) The Training Weightlifting stage is a developmental stage, whereby strength and conditioning coaches must pay attention to key growth and matura- tional processes. During this stage, it is expected that young athletes will expe- rience rapid growth in limb lengths, which may cause discomfort and/or momentary loss in motor coordination (48). Consequently, it is imperative that during this phase, coaches monitor growth rates and are sensitive to sudden interruptions in technical competency. Coaches may wish to use a maturity offset estimate to monitor the develop- ment of their athletes that will indicate physical maturity in relation to the onset of PHV (43). The maturity-offset estimate predicts the biological age of an individual in years from PHVand can be calculated by using chronological age, standing height, sitting height, and leg length within regression analyses (43). The benefit of such an approach is that it involves simple and noninvasive procedures, which should be available to all coaches. However, caution is warranted when implementing the maturity offset, owing to the measure- ment error associated with the measure of 61 year 95% of the time (43). Alternatively, if working with the same athletes over a prolonged period of time, coaches in cooperation with a physician may simply monitor growth rates of the stature, limbs, and trunk to identify when a growth spurt is begin- ning, is at its peak, and is coming toward an end. During this stage, program content may fluctuate between techni- cal competency and external loading; however, the safety of the athlete must be paramount at all times. As children approach the end of this stage, it is likely that they will have experienced PHV Figure 4. Basic fundamental weightlifting skill exercises: start and end position of a ÔsupermanÕ exercise (top, left to right), and start and end position of a ÔcrawlingÕ exercise (bottom, left to right). VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 201260 Weightlifting for Youth
  • 7. and will be undergoing PWV, which refers to the maximal rate of change in body mass during a growth spurt, typically owing to increased muscle mass (40). As such, the athlete can be exposed to heavier external loads, as PWV naturally leads to lean muscle mass de- velopment owing to increases in muscle- building hormonal concentrations (40). It is important to minimize the potential of long-term dysfunction by coaching the athlete, and not being misled by excep- tional sports performances produced by athletes within this age group. STAGE 4: PERFORMANCE WEIGHTLIFTING (MALES 16+ YEARS, FEMALES 15+ YEARS) The final stage represents the period whereby the young athlete can be exposed to more advanced training program design, focused on both tech- nical expertise and external loading. It should be noted that although earlier stages are more technique focused, training during these times should still be structured and follow a periodized plan. During the Performance Weight- lifting phase, and to ensure that the movement velocity is appropriate to the desired training goal (i.e., speed- strength or strength-speed), motion capture devices and accelerometers may be used to monitor bar velocity and power outputs (35) to ensure the maintenance of repetition velocity and rate of force development. Additionally, the use of video analysis is encouraged to monitor technique as technical inconsistencies become less obvious. WEIGHTLIFTING PROGRAM DESIGN FOR YOUNG ATHLETES When designing weightlifting pro- grams for young athletes, the variables of volume, intensity, repetition veloc- ity, frequency, and recovery must be considered to ensure optimal athletic development, and minimize injury risk. The authors wish to stress that the following recommendations should be applied within the context of the individual needs of the athlete, and that the following training variables should at all times be individualized within a training program. See Table 3 for a summary of suggested training prescription guidelines. VOLUME For young athletes entering the FWS stage, the volume of exercises would commonly be higher in comparison with the later stages owing to the relatively lower impact forces and joint loadings experienced during basic bodyweight movements. The purpose of the FWS stage is to provide children with a wide range of movement stimuli, and therefore for a given exercise, coaches are advised to prescribe ap- proximately 2–4 sets of 6–12 repetitions. This should provide the child with sufficient exposure to aid motor control development while serving as a suitable volume for physical conditioning. For the purposes of concentration retention and physical literacy devel- opment, it is suggested that a range of exercises should be given within Table 1 Example of exercises to develop fundamental weightlifting skills Upper limb Trunk Lower limb Pre-weightlifting power developmentMobility Stability Mobility Stability Mobility Stability Arm circles Scapula push ups Partner medicine ball rotations ‘‘Deadbugs’’ ‘‘Inch worms’’ SL balances CMJ and stick Arm swings (multi- directional) Bunny hops Partner medicine ball ‘‘over and unders’’ ‘‘Superman’’ Spiderman crawls Forward lunge SL CMJ and stick Wall slides and doorframe slides Forward crawling Sitting T-spine rotations Partner/band squats Under and overs cage walks Reverse lunge to balance CMJ for maximum height Wide arm OH squat/lunge Sideways crawling Spiderman crawl with rotation Crawling ‘‘Superman’’ balances Arabesque Lateral lunge CMJ with shrug for maximum height Y, T, W, L’s Backward crawling Lunge with rotation Partner/wall bracing Super wide monster band walks SL squat and reaches Box jumps Behind neck pressing Mini-band hand slides Foam roller supported side-lying extension- rotations Medicine ball balance walks Split squat Multi-directional mini-band walks OH medicine ball toss CMJ = countermovement jumps; OH = overhead; SL = single leg. Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 61
  • 8. a single session (6–10). However, it should be noted that if children are exposed to very basic introductory weightlifting exercises within this stage (i.e., an overhead squat with wooden dowel), then multiple repetitions might be counterproductive for motor con- trol development. Instead, it is recommended that children perform single repetitions and are provided with real-time feedback to ensure safe and correct movement development. Table 3 Suggested guidelines for training session prescription Training variable Fundamental weightlifting skillsa Learning weightlifting Training weightlifting Performance weightlifting Suggested age ranges (y) Males: 6–9, Females: 6–8 Males: 9–12, Females: 8–11 Males: 12–16, Females: 11–15 Males: 16+, Females: 15+ Volume (total repetitionsb ) 36–24 30–24 24–15 18–6 Total number of exercises per session 6–10 3–6 3–6 2–5 Intensity (%1RM) Body weight 30–50 50–85 85–100 Repetition velocity (speed of movement) Moderate–fast Moderate–fast Fast–maximal Maximal Frequency (sessions per week) 1–2 1–2 2–4 2–5 Recovery (hours in between sessions) 72 72–48 48 48–24 a The values for FWS do not necessarily equate to designated weightlifting progressions, but rather broad-ranging exercises to develop physical literacy. b The total number of repetitions can be divided between different configurations of sets and repetitions based on the goal of the training session, and phase of the periodized plan. Table 2 Suggested top-down progression model for weightlifting exercises (appropriate for Learning Weightlifting, Training Weightlifting and Performance Weightlifting) Snatch Clean Jerk Behind neck press Front squat Military press Overhead squat Vertical jump and landing mechanics Push press Overhead squat behind neck press Drop clean Push jerk Vertical jump and landing mechanics Power position-jump shrug Overhead split squat Drop snatch Power position-second pull Split jerk footwork line drill Power position-jump shrug Hang high clean pull Split jerk footwork line drill with dowel Power position-second pull Hang cleana Split jerk Hang high snatch pull First pull Clean and jerk Hang snatcha Clean from below kneeb First pull Clean from low block Snatch from below kneeb Clean from floor Snatch from low block Snatch from floor a Stage at which the ‘‘transition’’ phase is introduced to the individual. b Stage at which the double knee bend is introduced to the individual. VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 201262 Weightlifting for Youth
  • 9. When prescribing training volume for the Learning Weightlifting stage, the current article proposes performing multiple sets of 3–5 repetitions, volumes that have previously been suggested as most effective for young athletes to learn the snatch and clean and jerk (26). However, within each set, individual repetitions should be interspersed with feedback because incorrect form within the first repetition of a set will typically lead to poor technique for the re- mainder of the set. Table 3 shows that with an increase in training age as children move from Learning Weight- lifting through to Performance Weight- lifting, total volume for a given exercise and total number of exercises within a single session both reduce; however, these are in accordance with a concom- itant increase in training intensity. INTENSITY For children entering the progression schematic, body weight will serve as the prescribed training intensity. This is to ensure that young athletes do not attempt loaded exercises before move- ment competency can be demonstrated. However, it is suggested that some loading may be necessary to ‘‘feel’’ the bar, even in children, when considering learning proficient weightlifting tech- nique. On entering the Learning Weightlifting phase, it is suggested that the intensity of training sessions should be based upon percentages of the athlete’s 1 repetition maximum (1RM). Despite previous concerns, maximal strength testing in children (albeit using fixed-resistance training ma- chines) has been proven to be safe and reliable, provided appropriate protocols are implemented (23). Al- ternative means to predict resistance may include the Daily Adjusted Progressive Resistance Exercise or the Oddvar Holten Diagram Curve; however, the 1RM method is most commonly used. It should be acknow- ledged that methods of predicting 1RM values from higher repetition ranges possess less accuracy, in particular when repetition ranges exceed 10 (23). The decision on which method to use should be based on the training age, ability, and experience of the young athlete; however, coaches and young athletes should at all times ensure that safety is paramount. Using percentages of 1RM loads is deemed preferable as opposed to an athlete lifting the most weight they can for a given set of repetitions (e.g., 10RM), to avoid constantly training the ath- lete to failure. Previous reviews have highlighted that such an approach runs the risk of decreasing resting levels of testosterone and increasing resting cortisol concentrations (albeit for adult populations), which are counterproductive for strength and power gains (53,57). Especially when working with young athletes, it is recommended that intensity is never increased at the expense of technical competency. Table 3 shows that training intensity increases in accor- dance with increasing training age, with athletes in the Performance Weightlifting category regularly lifting loads of 85–100% 1RM. REPETITION VELOCITY Due to rate of force development being integral to explosive weightlifting per- formance (34,54), it is imperative that high repetition velocity is maintained. For this reason, it is suggested that coaches should integrate fast velocity movements within every stage of the progression model. Although certain exercises within the FWS phase may require slow, controlled movements, an element of high-velocity move- ments should still exist with basic vertical jumps serving as a suitable example. As athletes progress through the progression model, and enter the Training Weightlifting and Perfor- mance Weightlifting phases, the coach should expose the athlete to heavy loads ($80% 1RM) to maximize power output, maximal strength, muscle cross-sectional area, and maximal neu- ral activation (13). For experienced athletes in the Performance Weightlift- ing stage, the use of supramaximal loads may also be used to further stimulate maximal motor unit recruit- ment (e.g., first pulls performed with a 120% 1RM load). However, to expose the neuromuscular system to a range of stimuli across the force– velocity spectrum, and to avoid over- training symptoms (28), it is suggested that such loadings are used for brief periods of time within an overall periodized program. FREQUENCY In accordance with previous literature, it is proposed that training frequencies for youths should not exceed 2–3 one-hour weightlifting sessions per week (26). However, to maintain per- formance quality and athlete enthusiasm, it is reasonable to suggest that multiple sessions of shorter duration (i.e., 3–5, 30- to 40-minute sessions per week) could be an alternative approach, especially with younger athletes. As athletes progress toward the end of the progression model, training frequency may rise up to approximately 5 sessions per week, dependent on the training block within a periodized training program. However, the volume loads associated with such programs would only be conducive to individual athletes of the appropriate training age, and such frequencies should never be superimposed on athletes of a young training age. RECOVERY Due to weightlifting exercises and their derivative lifts being whole- body, multijoint multi-muscle move- ments (32), the need for adequate intra- and intersession rest is essential. As is common with generic resistance training methods for youths, an intersession rest period of 48 hours is recommended (19); however, for athletes within the Performance Weightlifting phase, the minimum rest period may on occasions be reduced. Although children may not show symptoms of delayed onset of muscle soreness because of their reduced body mass and increased pliability of muscle tissue (17), they will likely require more recovery time between consecutive training sessions to adapt to training-induced physiological stresses, and to allow for natural growth processes to occur (1,46). Therefore, it may not be as easy to Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com 63
  • 10. monitor training readiness therefore in youths, and consequently it is recommended that the strength and conditioning coach should always use a common sense and flexible ap- proach to training program design. One option available to the coach could be the use of the Profile of Mood States questionnaire, which has proven useful for assessing and preventing overtraining in young athletes (41). However, such ques- tionnaires do not reflect the extent of fatigue at a neuromuscular level, rather they provide only perceptions of fatigue. Consequently, neuromus- cular monitoring, possibly via mea- surement of the reactive strength index (ratio of jump height and ground contact time) during a re- bound-based test, could be a relatively simple method of quantifying actual neuromuscular fatigue (36). Regard- less of the monitoring tool selected, coaches should be aware of the symptoms of overtraining, such as: decreased performance, persistent fatigue, susceptibility to upper re- spiratory tract infections, disruptive sleep patterns, mood swings, and sudden weight loss (1,41). SUMMARY AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS The current article has reviewed the suitability of weightlifting for long- term athletic development. Despite previous misconceptions, weightlift- ing for youths is a safe and effective training modality to enhance physical literacy, muscular strength, and ex- plosive power. This article has also speculated on potential injury pre- vention benefits that weightlifting may provide to young athletes and confirms that the previously reported risk factors can be reduced or elimi- nated with appropriate supervision and instruction from appropriately qualified coaches. It would appear that pre-pubertal age-related neural developments and postpubertal matu- rity-related increases in sex androgen concentrations might offer suitable windows of adaptation to maximize athletic gains through weightlifting. The progression model provided within the article offers coaches a log- ical and sequential development tool to follow, which is in accordance to the theories of long-term athletic development. The training prescrip- tion guidelines included within the model should always be integrated with the needs of the individual athlete in mind, and at no stage should strength and conditioning coaches treat children like miniature adults. Rhodri S. Lloyd is the Program Director for the Sport Strength and Conditioning de- grees at the Uni- versity of Gloucestershire. Jon L. Oliver is a lecturer in Sport and Exercise Physiology at the University of Wales Institute Cardiff. Robert W. Meyers is a se- nior lecturer in Strength and Con- ditioning, Reha- bilitation and Massage at the University of Wales Institute Cardiff. Jeremy Moody is Program Direc- tor of the Strength and Conditioning, Rehabilitation and Massage degrees at the University of Wales Institute Cardiff. Michael H. Stone is the Exercise and Sports Science Laboratory Director in the Department of Kinesiology, Leisure, and Sport Sciences at East Tennessee State University. REFERENCES 1. American Academy of Pediatrics. Intensive training and sports specialization in young athletes. Pediatrics 106: 154–157, 2000. 2. American Academy of Pediatrics. Strength training by children and adolescents. Pediatrics 121: 835–840, 2008. 3. Badminton England. Long Term Athlete Development. Leeds, United Kingdom: Coachwise Ltd, 2006. pp. 1–2. 4. Baker D, Mitchell J, Boyle D, Currell S, Wilson G, Bird SP, O’Connor D, and Jones J. Resistance training for children and youth: A position stand from the Australian Strength and Conditioning Association (ASCA). 2007. Available at www.strengthandconditioning.org. Accessed: July 13, 2011. 5. Balyi I and Hamilton A. Long-Term Athlete Development: Trainability in Childhood and Adolescence—Windows of Opportunity—Optimal Trainability. Victoria, British Columbia, Canada: National Coaching Institute British Columbia & Advanced Training and Performance Ltd, 2004. pp. 1–8. 6. Beunen GP and Malina RM. Growth and physical performance relative to the timing of the adolescent spurt. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 16: 503–540, 1988. 7. Blimkie CJR and Bar-Or O. Trainability of muscle strength, power and endurance during childhood. In: The Child and Adolescent Athlete. Bar-Or O, ed. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Science, 1996. pp. 113–129. 8. Borms J. The child and exercise: An overview. J Sports Sci 4: 4–20, 1986. 9. British Gymnastics. Long Term Athlete Development. Leeds, United Kingdom: Coachwise Ltd, 2006. pp. 1–2. 10. Byrd R, Pierce K, Reilly L, and Brady J. Young weightlifters’ performance across time. Sports Biomech 2: 133–140, 2003. 11. Channell BT and Barfield JP. Effect of olympic and traditional resistance training VOLUME 34 | NUMBER 4 | AUGUST 201264 Weightlifting for Youth
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