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Ethics and Morality: An Overview Critical Thinking

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Consider Ethics: Theory, Readings, and Contemporary Issues Third Edition Bruce N. Waller

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Intro to Ethical Decision Making: Ethics and Moral Values

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PHI 107: Module 1 Notes Module 1 Reading Assignment Waller, B. N. (2011). Consider ethics: Theory, readings, and contemporary issues (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson. Chapters 1 and 3. NOTE: Bookmarking pages in this site, especially the resources you access with the link above, is not recommended. Please view Part 1 of the Online Presentation for Module 1. Please view Part 2 of the Online Presentation for Module 1. Thinking about Ethics, Emotions, and Intuitions Chapter 1 Lecture Notes: Thinking about Ethics Ethics and Critical Thinking Ethics requires that we have a definite grasp on the questions to which we seek answers. Understanding ethical questions requires being able to identify which premises are relevant to the conclusion. Changing one's beliefs in light of better arguments or new information is a sign of clear and honest thinking. We must therefore be aware of bad reasoning or fallacies when discussing ethical questions. Bad forms of reasoning include the following: red herring/irrelevant reason, ad hominem, principle of charity, strawman fallacy, and inconsistency. The red herring/irrelevant reason fallacy is a fallacy in which an irrelevant issue is given as a reason for accepting a certain conclusion. For example, if I say “We should ban rated-R movies because murder is wrong,” I have presented an irrelevant reason for banning R-rated movies, as the question is not whether murder is wrong, but whether such movies lead to murder. The ad hominem fallacy is an attack on the arguer as opposed to an attack on the argument itself. If I claim that someone is wrong because they are a bad person, I have committed an ad hominem because I have attacked the character of the arguer, not the reasoning of the argument itself. Arguments stand on their own, regardless of who presents them, and must be evaluated thusly. When engaging in ethical discussions and philosophical discussions in general, it is important to remember the principle of charity. The principle of charity states that you should approach an opponent’s argument as generously and honestly as you can. This means that you should not misrepresent an argument in order to make it more easily defeated. Doing this is called a strawman fallacy, where you defeat an argument by distorting it. Ethical reasoning also requires that one’s beliefs are consistent with each other. If I accept a belief, I must accept all accompanying implications of the belief as well; otherwise my beliefs will suffer from inconsistency, thus rendering them arbitrary and unreasonable. Studying Ethics It is not the intention of this course to make you a better person, but to examine a number of conflicting moral positions and help you see where your views might fit. What kinds of truths are ethical truths? Are they eternal, absolute and universal, and known only by some special power; or are they more common ordinary facts that are part of our world that can be known by ordinary means? Philos.

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Critical thinking- Video https://wi-phi.com/videos/intro-to-critical-thinking/ Consequentialism – Video https://wi-phi.com/videos/consequentialism/ Normative vs Descriptive Claims – Video https://wi-phi.com/videos/normative-descriptive-claims/ slippery slope argument – Video https://wi-phi.com/videos/slippery-slope/ 34 CHAPTER 2 Bioethics and Moral Theories As we have seen, the moral life is dynamic, complex, and inescapable. In it we wrestle with momentous questions of moral value and moral rightness. We assert, challenge, accept, and reject moral statements. We make moral judgments about the rightness of actions, the goodness of persons or their character, and the moral quality and worth of our lives. Through general moral norms or principles, we direct our actions and inform our choices. We formulate and critique moral arguments, thereby testing what we know or think we know about moral realities. We do all this and one thing more: We naturally and unavoidably venture into the realm of moral theory, trying to see the larger moral meaning behind particular situations and precepts. In this chapter, we explore this realm and try to discern how it fits into the moral life in general and into bioethics in particular. the nature of moral theories In science, theories help us understand the em- pirical world by explaining the causes of events, why things are the way they are. The germ theory of disease explains how particular diseases arise and spread in a human population. The helio- centric (sun-centered) theory of planetary motion explains why the planets in our solar system behave the way they do. In ethics, moral theories have a similar explanatory role. A moral theory explains not why one event causes another but why an action is right or wrong or why a person or a person’s character is good or bad. A moral theory tells us what it is about an action that makes it right, or what it is about a person that makes him or her good. The divine command theory of morality, for example, says that right actions are those commanded or willed by God. Traditional utilitarianism says that right actions are those that produce the greatest happiness for all concerned. These and other moral theories are attempts to define rightness or goodness. In this way, they are both more general and more basic than moral principles or other general norms. Moral theorizing— that is, making, using, or assessing moral theories or parts of theories— is normal and pervasive in the moral life, though it is often done without much recognition that theory is playing a part in the deliberations. Whenever we try to understand what a moral property such as rightness or goodness means, or justify a moral principle or other norm, or re- solve a conflict between two credible principles, or explain why a particular action or practice is right or wrong, or evaluate the plausibility of specific moral intuitions or ass.

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2 Skepticism About Ethics Bet_Noire/iStock/Thinkstock Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to: • Explain what it means to be a moral skeptic. • Explain the notion of moral relativism and how it differs from moral objectivity. • Discuss challenges to relativism. • Explain the notion of egoism and how it differs from the notion that moral standards are unconditional. • Discuss Glaukon’s challenge from Plato’s Republic and identify the main claims made in the story. © 2018 Bridgepoint Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Not for resale or redistribution. 38 Section 2.1 Introduction to Skepticism 2.1 Introduction to Skepticism In contemporary usage, skepticism means a doubt that a belief or claim is true. We often use this word to refer to general doubts about all claims of a particular sort. For example, a reli- gious skeptic might have doubts about claims pertaining to the existence of God, the possibil- ity of knowing anything about God, and so on. A global warming skeptic might doubt claims that human activity is the main cause of average global temperature rise, or a 9/11 “truther” might be skeptical about claims that the terrorist attacks in New York City and Washington, D.C., were exclusively the doings of al-Qaida (as opposed to being supported by the U.S. gov- ernment). Likewise, many people regard the claims of politicians, salespersons, and media personalities with doubt and suspicion. Similarly, a moral skeptic—in the way we will be using this term here—will doubt common beliefs about morality itself. It is important to note that we are not referring to people who doubt specific moral claims, such as the claim that eating animals is wrong or that abortion is morally justified. Nor are we referring to those who doubt the truth of certain general moral theories or principles, such as utilitarianism or deontology. If we recall the discussion of the landscape of moral philosophy from Chapter 1, claims about concrete moral problems like eating animals or abortion fall under applied ethics, while claims about the general rules, principles, and values that should inform our judgments and choices fall under normative ethics. The kind of skepticism we are discussing in this chapter involves the more basic kinds of claims that fall under the scope of metaethics. Specifically, we will consider the reasons one might hold doubts about two commonly assumed features of morality itself: 1. Moral standards are objective. 2. Moral standards are unconditional. The forms of moral skepticism we will consider in this chapter raise doubts about those two features. 1. Relativism doubts whether moral standards are objective, instead maintaining that they are only true or false relative to a culture or individual. 2. Egoism doubts whether moral standards are unconditional, instead maintaining that they are only good if they serve an individual’s self-interest, which in turn implies that it ma ...

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Chapter 7 Virtue Ethics: Be a Good Person Copyright © 2019 W. W. Norton & Company Virtue Ethics Both consequentialist and nonconsequentialist moral theories are concerned with action and attempt to answer the question “What should I do?” Virtue ethics is a theory of morality that makes virtue the central concern. Virtue ethics attempts to answer the question “What should I be?” Discussion Question: How could a utilitarian (who asks, “What should I do?”) incorporate virtues (that ask, “What should I be?”) into his theory without doing violence to the principle of utility? ‹#› Aristotle’s Ethics – 1 Almost all modern virtue ethicists trace their theoretical roots back to Aristotle. His ethics consists not in following moral rules that stipulate right actions but in striving to be a particular kind of person—a virtuous person whose actions stem naturally from virtuous character. Discussion Questions: How does Kant's idea of duty differ from Aristotle's conception of virtue? Which do you find more compelling? ‹#› Aristotle’s Ethics – 2 For Aristotle, every living thing has an end toward which it naturally aims, the thing that represents its greatest good. The greatest good for humans—their true goal—is eudaimonia, which means “happiness” or “flourishing” and refers to the true realization of the good life. Discussion Question: Does your life have a chief end (a state or point of great value) toward which you strive? ‹#› Eudaimonia To achieve eudaimonia, human beings must fulfill the function that is natural and distinctive to them: living fully in accordance with reason. The life of reason entails a life of virtue because the virtues themselves are rational modes of being. Discussion Question: According to Aristotle, the virtuous life both helps us to achieve happiness and is happiness. What does this mean? ‹#› Virtues To Aristotle, a virtue is a stable disposition to act and feel according to some ideal or model of existence. It is a deeply embedded character trait that can affect actions in countless situations. Aristotle distinguishes between intellectual and moral virtues. Intellectual VirtuesMoral VirtuesWisdomFairnessPrudenceBenevolenceRationalityHonestyLoyaltyConscientiousnessCourage Discussion Questions: Can virtues be acquired over time? Must we be born with virtues in order to have them? If they can be acquired, how should this be done? Is a lecture on virtues helpful? ‹#› The Golden Mean – 1 Moral virtues occupy what Aristotle calls the “Golden Mean”—a balance between two behavioral extremes. For example, a moral virtue such as courage is the midpoint between the extremes of recklessness, on one side, and cowardice, on the other. Discussion Question: Are all virtues a balance between two behavioral extremes? ‹#› The Golden Mean – 2 For Aristotle, the Golden Mean expresses a fundamental truth: the virtuous—and happy—life is a life of moderation in all things. Discussion Question: What person ...

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9.5 Moral Theories All moral claims are grounded in some moral theory. It is the nature of such claims that they are based on a system of beliefs about what is right and wrong, just and unjust. The table below lists a handful of the moral theories you are most likely to encounter in ethical arguments today. It’s important to note that each one has its own strengths and weaknesses. Moral theories give you general guidelines, but you still usually have to apply moral reasoning in individual cases to test them out. For example, none of these theories explicitly claim that killing is wrong. The theories are more about how you would ground your claim that killing is wrong. Moral theories are also not mutually exclusive. The argument that killing is wrong could be grounded in all of these theories. Whether they know it or not, everyone has a moral theory. It is inescapable. Even if their moral theory is that there are no morals, that still represents a moral theory. But not all moral theories are equal—some hold up to critical thinking better than others. You may see wisdom in all of these perspectives, or you may strongly identify with a single one. Regardless, it's important for you to recognize the potential weaknesses in any moral theory you favor, and it's helpful for you to understand why others find legitimacy in the moral theories they employ. Theory Criticisms Kantian Ethics · Immanuel Kant put forth the categorical imperative, which states that you should only act on moral principles that you would be willing to turn into universal laws mandating that everyone act the same way. · This is a version of the question, “How would you like it if everyone did that?” Any two people who want to get married should be able to. · This theory is so absolute that it sometimes goes against moral common sense. It’s wrong to kiss my spouse because I would not like it if everyone kissed my spouse. Utilitarianism · The morally right course of action is the one that will produce the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people. · The only thing that matters is the consequences of the action, not the intentions behind the action (the ends justify the means). · Ignores people’s rights, duties, and intentions. · Could be used to justify an act that most would consider morally wrong because it inflicts harm on one person unjustly, even if it brings great happiness to many others. It’s okay to steal money from my neighbor and take my family on a vacation, because then my whole family would be happy, and only my neighbor would be harmed. Ethical Egoism · Doing whatever is best for your own interests or would make you happy. · This is not necessarily the same thing as doing whatever you want in the moment, because that might not be in your best interests in the long term. · Can be used to justify terrible actions. Ethical Altruism · Doing whatever is best for others or would bring the greatest amount of happiness to people besides yourself. · Some.

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