3. 1. SURVEYS AND EXPERIMENTS
Example 1: Car survey
To find out the proportion of Ford cars to Peugeuts in a particular
country. This would entail counting the number of each. If it is not
possible to find every single occurrence, a sample may be taken.
Statistical analysis tells us both how many, or what percentage of each,
and how valid the sample is in representing the whole.
Example 2: Car experiment
To test the hypothesis that more Ford cars will be bought if prospective
first-time buyers are exposed to advertising that says they are safer. A
sample of first-time buyers is exposed to the advertising; another
sample is not; and the degree to which each group buys Fords is
measured. A variety of techniques are employed to control variables to
reduce contamination. For example, the age and social class of the
subjects are kept constant.
4. Example 3: Eyes survey
To calculate the proportion of brown to blue
eyes within a particular nationality. The
occurrence of each is counted within a
statistically valid sample.
Example 4: Eyes questionnaire
Within the population in Example 3 to find out
what people mean by, and what their attitudes
are to ‘brown’ and ‘blue’, and what sort of social
values underlie these meanings and attitudes.
5. EXAMPLE 5: EGYPTIAN INTERVIEW
I was sitting in an Egyptian university faculty common
room listening to a lecturer answering survey questions
about the timetable in her department. The American
interviewer was going through the questions with her,
perhaps to ensure good researcher-subject relations.
Later on the lecturer ‘confided in me that what she had
told him bore little relation to reality, but that she had
not wished to disappoint him by telling him that she
could not answer most of the questions’.
6. 2. THE QUALITATIVE AREAS OF SOCIAL LIFE
EXAMPLE 6: EYES STUDY
An exploration of what people mean by, and
what their attitudes are to ‘brown’ and ‘blue’ eye
color, and of what sort of social values underlie
these meanings and attitudes. The residents of
three households of different classes and
ethnicity in a provincial town are studied. They
are interviewed in groups on topics related to
human attractiveness as displayed in their daily
life, in advertising and in the media. The
interviews are open-ended, allowing relevant
topics and themes to be developed. They are
followed up with further interviews to which the
residents are invited to bring photographs of
family and friends, advertising and the media as
7. EXAMPLE 7: CAR STUDY
An exploration of attitudes to Ford car adverts. An
advert is played on video in three public houses
frequented by members of the target first-time buyer
group, and their comments recorded. This is followed
up with group interviews which explore topics arising
from the comments. The public houses are revisited
one year later and the same people are interviewed
about which cars they bought and what this means to
them.
8. Two paradigms: Activities
Quantitative Qualitative
Counts occurrences Looks deep into the
across a large quality of social life
population Locates the study
Uses statistics to within particular
settings
validate generalization
Initial foray into the
Attempts to reduce social setting leads to
contaminating social further, more informed
variables exploration as themes
and focuses emerge
9. Two paradigms: Beliefs
Quantitative Qualitative
Conviction about what is Conviction that what is
important to look for important to look for will
emerge
Confidence in
established research Confidence in an ability
instruments to devise research
procedures to fit the
Reality is not so situation and the nature
problematic if the of the people in it, as they
research instruments are are revealed
adequate; and conclusive
Reality contains
results are feasible
mysteries to which the
researcher must submit
10. Two paradigms: Steps
Quantitative Qualitative
Decide the research Decide the subject is
focus interesting
Then devise and pilot Go into the field to see
research instruments what is going on
Then go into the field Focus on themes emerge
Rigour: Rigour:
Disciplined application of Principled development
established rules for of research strategy to
statistics, experiment and suit the scenario being
survey design studied as it is revealed
11. STEPS IN DOING THE RESEARCH
Qualitative Quantitative
Decide the subject is Decide the research
interesting focus
Explore the subject Devise research
Let focus the themes instruments
emerge Approach the subject
Devise research
instrument during
process
12. 3. MANAGING SUBJECTIVITY
Develops aspects of anthropology and sociology
represents a broad view that to understand human
affairs (cannot be answer by survey and statistics)
Walford (1991:1) careful, objective, step by step
model of the research process is actually a fraud...
Within natural sciences as well as social sicence...
(Watson of reseaching DNA)
Are expected to come out and tell it as it really
happened
13. 4. DEVELOPING RIGOUR THROUGH WRITING
Decision about research instrument are made in
gradual response to the nature of the social setting.
Every qualitative research design will be different.
In quantitative research the source of validity is
known.
In qualitative research researcher need to justify
every move. Demonstrating how the strategy is
appropriate to the social setting.
14. 5. JUDICIOUS BALANCE
To meet the important of the social situation being
studied, freedom is needed to explore creatively the
best way to approach the scenario
The researcher must be prepared to account
carefully for every move made.
Most researchers must be more explicit about their
research processes: to offer rationale and further
detail on issues such as respondent selection, key
changes in research direction and analytical
procedures
15. SOURCE OF VALIDITY
Quantitative research Qualitative research
Details of the population (in Choice of social setting: How feasible
samples) (access), how substantial (duration,
depth, breadth)
What short of questions
Choice of research activities : how they
Which statistics suit the social setting, how researcher-
The composition of group subject relationship, how to form
(in experiment) coherent strategy.
Which variables are being Choice of themes and focuses: how
they emerge, why significant, how far
included and excluded
they are respresentative of the social
What groups are exposed to setting
in experiment Overall need to articulate a judicios
balance between opportunism and
principle
16. 6. RESEARCH AS SOCIAL ACTION
Qualitative research is learning culture
Qualitative research is similar to the research in
everyday life (ideologically motivated)
Research setting involves interaction between
culture of the setting and culture of research
(researcher cannot put themselves above other
people)
17. 7. RESEARCH AND EVERYDAY LIFE
Research as everyday life = we continually have to
solve the problems about how we should behave
with other people in a wide range of setting.
This would involve analysing behaviour and
language, how and when to be formal/informal,
learning new technical terms, specialist turn of
phrase, what constitutes humour etc.
18. 8. DISCOVERING AND DOING CULTURE
Culture = socially constructed entities which exist
only in the way in which people operationally
divided up the world
Culture = composite of cohesive behaviour within
any social grouping from a neighbourhood to a
work group (Beales et al, 1967: 8)
In this view culture is seen as dynamic, ongoing
group process which operates in changing
circumstances to enable group member to make
sense of and operate meaningfully within those
circumstances
19. 9. RESEARCH AS IDEOLOGICAL PRACTICE
Researchers bring with them residues of their own
cultural background.
Ideological means systematic body of ideas
organized from a particular point of view.
Social groups organize their lives around concepts,
purposes, values, beliefs, ideas, theories, notions of
reality, and the like.
20. 10. RESEARCH LANGUAGE AND WRITING
Writing of qualitative research is not going to be an
easy task
Being as transparent as possible about how the
research is constructed in relation to the research
setting, enables evaluation of its cultural and
ideological appropriateness in writing.
We cannot avoid ideology, it has to be carried out in
a very self-conscious way
21. Schools and
Approaches
Any venture into the literature will reveal that
quantitative research is presented under a
confusing array of different and variable headings.
1. A FLUID PICTURE
Denzil and Lincoln (1994b) state that there are no
tight categories. For example, you do not have to
choose between case study, ethnography and grounded
theory.
22. 2. NATURALISM OR POSTPOSITIVISM
More ‘traditional’ paradigm in qualitative research
(much more closer to positivism)
Reality is seen as relatively straightforward
Deeper social reality needs qualitative enquiry
Problem truth is supported by extensive
substantiated record or real setting
Researcher must not interfere with real setting
23. 3. PROGRESIVISM
Qualitative research potrays people as constructing
the social world
researchers as themselves constructing the social
world through their interpretation of it
Reality and science are socially constructed
Researchers are part of research settings
Investigation must be reflective, self-critical,
creative dialog
Aims to problematize, reveal hidden realities,
initiate discussions
24. Writer as Stranger
The qualitative researcher as writer must see
her/his own research experience as strangely and
freshly
