1. SUPPORTING TEACHER LEARNING Maureen D. Neumann
Preservice Teachers
Examine Gender Equity in
Teaching Mathematics
T
he National Council of Teachers of Math- increasingly find themselves in the same position as
ematics recognizes that mathematical knowl- those who were illiterate in the twentieth century.
edge is essential for employment and full It is essential that mathematics teachers engage
participation in our society. The strategic inclusion all students in developing a deep understanding of
of the Equity Principle in NCTM’s Principles and mathematics by seeking to eliminate inequitable
Standards for School Mathematics (2000) reflects teaching practices. In this article, I discuss aspects
the need in the mathematics education community of gender equity that exist in mathematics class-
to eliminate long-standing disparities in mathemat- rooms, describe a project that I use with preservice
ics performance. However, incorporating equitable elementary school teachers to help them recognize
pedagogical practices into one’s instruction does possible inequitable practices, and share ways of
not mean that every student should receive identical adapting this project to address other aspects of
instruction; rather, it “demands that reasonable and inequitable practice.
appropriate accommodations be made as needed
to promote access and attainment [of mathematics
knowledge] for all students” (NCTM 2000, p. 12).
Inequity in Mathematics
Although NCTM asserts that equity in math- Teaching
ematics learning is a goal, achieving that goal is Mathematics teaching is a product of society. It
much more complex. NAEP average scale scores reflects and serves the interests of particular groups
have risen since 1990 for both male and female stu- and can be “examined by looking at the social
dents; however, gender gaps have not narrowed. On system in which mathematics is created and used”
the 2003 NAEP test for fourth graders, girls scored (Martin 1997, p. 155). Claims that females do not
three points lower than boys. Some researchers have the “gene for math” or are “less biologically
view this difference as a relatively small gap in capable” of doing mathematics are unsubstanti-
achievement. However, other scholars believe that ated (Martin 1997; Zaslavsky 1996). Zaslavsky
this small, persistent gap could explain the gender (1996) worked to expose the belief that certain
differences of women entering mathematics-related large categories of people—women, minorities,
occupations (McGraw, Lubienski, and Strutchens and working-class people—are incapable of learn-
2006). ing high-level mathematics. Her research showed
Mathematical proficiency is critical to the future that teachers are guilty, perhaps unconsciously,
careers of all students. Most high-paying science of this type of stereotyping. Teachers often think
and technological positions require strong math- that “girls succeed because they try hard whereas
ematical skills. These positions have historically boys succeed because of their innate ability” (Perez
been filled by white males; women and minorities 2000, p. 28). However, Principles and Standards
have been poorly represented in these fields. People for School Mathematics asserts, “Well-documented
who are innumerate in the twenty-first century will examples demonstrate that all children, including
those who have been traditionally underserved, can
Maureen D. Neumann, Maureen.Neumann@uvm.edu, teaches mathematics education courses
for preservice and in-service teachers at the University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405. learn mathematics when they have access to high-
Edited by Fran Arbaugh, arbaughe@missouri.edu, and John Lannin, LanninJ@missouri.edu.
quality instructional programs that support their
Arbaugh and Lannin are members of the mathematics education faculty at the University of learning” (NCTM 2000, p. 14).
Missouri–Columbia, Columbia, MO 65203. “Supporting Teacher Learning” serves as a forum Teachers need to uncover any inequitable
for the exchange of ideas and a source of activities and pedagogical strategies for teacher edu-
instructional practices and change their attitudes
cators in their day-to-day work with prospective and practicing teachers. Readers are encour-
aged to send manuscripts appropriate for this department by accessing tcm.msubmit.net. and beliefs about who can learn mathematics
(Zaslavsky 1996). Teachers communicate unwrit-
388 Teaching Children Mathematics / March 2007
Copyright © 2007 The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Inc. www.nctm.org. All rights reserved.
This material may not be copied or distributed electronically or in any other format without written permission from NCTM.

2. ten expectations of their students’ academic success
through their verbal interactions during classroom
The Equity Teaching Analysis
instruction, their comments on student papers, their Project
tracking of students into ability groups, and their The Equity Teaching Analysis Project (Equity Proj-
lack of consistent support for students who need a ect) was designed to introduce elementary preser-
deeper mathematical understanding (NCTM 2000). vice teachers to equity in instructional practice by
Disparities between girls and boys are rooted analyzing an actual teaching experience within an
early in children’s schooling. As early as second undergraduate mathematics methods course. This
or third grade, girls perceive themselves as lower systematic analysis helps the preservice teachers
in mathematical ability than boys (Fennema et al. see the need to make their teaching of mathematics
1998; Hanson 1992). The ways teachers instruct more equitable. The term more equitable is defined
can contribute to the continuation or elimination of here as “fostering equity in the quality and quantity
these patterns. of statements made by male and female students
One way for teachers to address gender ineq- while learning mathematics during a period of
uity is to identify their own inequitable teaching K–6 classroom instruction.” The concept for the
practices and then work to improve these. Lampert Equity Project was developed from the work of a
(2001) documented her struggle to include all colleague, Charles Rathbone, who initially taught a
students and adapt to meet their needs. Her sys- version of this project in his mathematics methods
tematic investigation into her teaching by reflect- course.
ing on video recordings helped her focus on what The Equity Project is conducted during pre-
“make[s] it possible for students to perform in service teachers’ third year in their undergraduate
different ways to different kinds of competencies” teacher education program. They enroll in a three-
(p. 367), thereby enabling her to better meet the credit mathematics methods course that is part of a
needs of all her students. Paley (1986) related that larger block of professional coursework in literacy.
tape-recording herself enabled her to hear what she Field assignments with K–6 students are supervised
really said to students, not what she thought she by university faculty and public school teachers
said or how she thought she handled situations. who serve as mentors.
The audio tape served as an objective, nonbiased Often elementary preservice teachers do not
observer in her classroom. realize that their actions reflect or contribute to
Teaching Children Mathematics / March 2007 389

3. Figure 1
Verbal interaction categories (adapted from Shepardson and Pizzini 1991) and examples
Categories Examples
Praise
Academic—Teacher rewards students and rein- “Interesting strategy.”
forces the intellectual quality of academic work. “I like your thinking in solving that problem.”
Nonacademic—Teacher rewards students and “You’re being nice and quiet today.”
reinforces work or activity not related to the intel- “I like how you put your name at the top of your
lectual quality of academic work. test.”
Academic Criticism
Intellectual quality—Teacher directs critical re- “I don’t think you’re good at mathematics.”
marks at the lack of intellectual quality. “This is a simple problem that you got wrong.”
Effort—Teacher attributes academic failure to lack “You’re not trying hard enough.”
of effort. “You could do the math if you just put your mind
to it and worked harder”
Nonacademic Criticism
Mild—Teacher makes negative comments about “Megan, you need to raise your hand.”
violations of conduct, rules, and forms; behaviors; “Tom, stay in line.”
and other nonacademic areas.
Harsh—Teacher makes negative comments that “Tom, I told you to get in line! I don’t want to talk
attract attention because they are louder, longer, to you again about this. The next time I say some-
and stronger than mild criticism. thing, no recess!”
Questions
Low-level—Teacher asks questions that require “What number follows 59?”
memorization of facts. “What is 6 times 5?”
High-level—Teacher asks questions that require “How did you figure out that 62 times 51 equals
higher intellectual processes—i.e., that ask the 3162?”
student to use information, not just memorize it. “How did you know that 60 follows 59?”
These are considered open-ended questions or
probing/pressing questions.
Academic Intervention
Facilitates—Teacher facilitates learning by provid- “How does solving 60 times 50 help you solve 62
ing students with suggestions, hints, and cues times 51?”
that encourage and enable them to complete the “Looking at the hundreds chart, what do you
assignment themselves. notice about the numbers that follow numbers
that end in 9?”
Short-circuits—Teacher prevents or short-circuits “Give me your pencil. When multiplying, you
student’s success by taking over the learning first….”
process. “You’ve got this part wrong—60 times 50 is 3000,
not 300.”
Information
Academic­—Teacher gives information related to “The sum of the interior angles for any triangle is
the lesson content. 180º .”
Nonacademic—Teacher gives information that is “I need everyone to put their desks in groups of 4
procedural or related to classroom management. for today’s lesson.”
390 Teaching Children Mathematics / March 2007

4. inequity. Before my preservice teachers begin this Figure 2
project, a majority believe that their instruction to
K–6 students is equitable. Through video and audio Sample of elementary preservice teacher’s transcript and coding
tape recordings, transcriptions, and self-reflection,
To begin the lesson, the teacher demonstrates a chip trading game using deci-
the Equity Project illuminates how they as teachers mal numbers. The teacher has drawn a chart on the blackboard and taped the
create conditions of unequal participation in their chips on the board. The chips are used to represent a decimal number, and the
classrooms. The project also requires that the teach- teacher challenges the students to interpret the representation.
ers prescribe immediate changes to their verbal Teacher [low-level question, directed to male student]. How would you say
instructions and address their inequitable behavior that number, Boy 1?
Boy 1. Two and forty-two hundredths.
as part of their critical reflection assignment. Teacher [low-level question, directed to male student]. I’m sorry. What did you
To demonstrate the type of instruction elemen- say?
tary teachers should use with their students, the Boy 1. Two and forty-two hundredths.
Equity Project is conducted during a unit on Teacher [academic praise, directed to male student]. Yes, two and forty-two
teaching data investigations to K–6 students. For hundredths. [academic praise, directed to male student] I like the way you
used “and” in there, as you were taught.
this project, the preservice teachers need to sort, Teacher [high-level question, directed to whole class]. Now what would hap-
display, analyze, and describe data just as their K–6 pen if I took these chips off?
students do in their data investigations. [low-level question, directed to whole class] How would I say that? [academic
information, directed to the whole class] That’s a little bit different. [low-level
The task question, directed to female student] Girl 1?
Girl 1. Two and four tenths.
Elementary preservice teachers teach and, using Teacher [academic praise, directed to female student]. Two and four tenths,
either video or audio tape, tape-record a mathemat- good. [high-level question, directed to female student] And why is it two and
ics lesson for twenty minutes. From this recording, four tenths and not hundredths?
they create transcripts of teacher-student discussion. Girl 1. Because you don’t have any chips in the hundredths?
They then code each sentence from the transcripts Teacher [academic praise, directed to female student]. That’s right. Let’s do
one more to refresh our memories. [Puts more chips on the board.] [low-level
according to the verbal interaction categories cre- question, directed to male student] Okay, Boy 2?
ated by Shepardson and Pizzini (1991), which help Boy 2. Three and twenty-five hundredths.
identify potential gender inequities: praise, aca- Teacher [academic praise, directed to male student]. Good, three and twenty-
demic criticism, nonacademic criticism, questions, five hundredths. [low-level question, directed to whole class] Does everyone
academic intervention, and information (see figs. 1 agree with that?
Whole class. Yes.
and 2). The preservice teachers then create a data
summary sheet using a spreadsheet computer pro-
gram (see fig. 3, p. 392) and graph the data (see fig. Megan—are representative of the thinking that
4, p. 394) to represent the verbal interactions that emerged from the larger group.
occur during their lesson. The teachers then analyze Melissa noticed that her classroom management
their transcripts as to both the quality and the quan- strategies often enabled boys to receive more sub-
tity of the various interactions. This analysis aids stantive mathematics instruction:
the teachers in identifying and interpreting patterns
of potential inequitable practice and in creating an As I reflect on [my classroom management
intervention plan for their teaching behavior. strategies], it becomes clear that the boys who
For their written report, the preservice teachers were acting out and not being cooperative were
begin by discussing equity in instruction. Next, rewarded with more opportunities for learning!
they describe their results and reflect on their analy- I look back over my transcript and realize that
sis. Reflection questions help them focus their data I tried to manage behavioral issues in the class
analysis discussion (see fig. 5, p. 395, for sample by inviting the disruptive person to the front of
reflection questions). the room and asking [him] a high-level math
question.… In all cases, the disruptive students
Hidden inequities in teaching that I engaged in high-level questioning were
mathematics boys. The boys would stop the negative behav-
The Equity Project opens elementary preser- ior and become engaged in math concepts that
vice teachers’ eyes to their inequitable teaching were being explored. I did not realize that this
practices. Although more than 200 teachers have was rewarding behavior with opportunities to
completed the project during the last five years, learn math. I rewarded girls [who demonstrated]
the insights of three of them—Melissa, Ellen, and more cooperative behavior with nonacademic
Teaching Children Mathematics / March 2007 391

5. Figure 3
Elementary preservice teacher’s data summary sheet: Comments directed at children by
teacher
Verbal Interaction Boys Girls Whole Class Totals
Categories No. Percentage No. Percentage No. Percentage No. Percentage
Praise
Academic 7 47% 8 53% 0 0% 15 13%
Nonacademic 3 38% 0 0% 5 62% 8 7%
Academic criticism
Intellectual quality 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Effort 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Nonacademic criticism
Mild 6 75% 0 0% 2 25% 8 7%
Harsh 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Questions
Low-level 14 30% 15 32% 18 38% 47 42%
High-level 0 0% 0 0% 2 10% 2 2%
Academic intervention
Facilitates 1 100% 0 0% 0 0% 1 1%
Short-circuits 1 100% 0 0% 0 0% 1 1%
Information
Academic 1 11% 1 11% 7 78% 9 8%
Nonacademic 4 20% 0 0% 16 80% 20 18%
Total Tallies/Percentages 37 33% 24 21% 51 46% 112 100%
praise/encouragement. (Equity Teaching Analy- really surprised to see this. I didn’t even notice
sis Project 2002) that I was doing this. (Equity Teaching Analysis
Project 2004)
Melissa realized that she rewarded negative behav-
ior by having the boys answer questions that helped The transcript analysis made Ellen realize that, by
push their mathematical thinking. The students who asking boys probing, open-ended questions about
sat quietly were not given the same opportunity. mathematics, she was subconsciously limiting the
With this awareness, she planned to change her opportunities for other students to learn. Asking
practice by asking high-level questions to all stu- higher-level questions can assist students in learn-
dents, including those who were not disruptive. ing mathematics at a deeper level. Ellen’s analysis
Ellen, too, realized that she asked more higher- helped her realize that the quantity and the quality
level questions of boys than girls, enabling the boys of the interactions that elementary teachers have
to think about the mathematics at a deeper level: with their students were necessary for promoting
equitable practice.
I noticed something really interesting about my Megan, another third-year student, noticed her
interactions with students when I asked higher- use of language to shape students’ behavior:
level questions. I don’t think I probed the girls
as intensely as I probed the boys. When I asked All of my nonacademic criticism was towards
a girl a question about place value and she gave boys.… I think that I am going to have to be
me the right answer, I just told her that she was more aware of my academic praise as well.
right. However, whenever I asked a boy … Fifty-four percent of my academic praise was
whether he gave a correct or incorrect answer, again to boys, compared with about 31 percent
I would always follow up with, “How do you given to girls.… I have noticed many things that
know?” or “Why did you do it like that?” I was I would not have been able to pick up on with-
392 Teaching Children Mathematics / March 2007

6. out (analyzing) a transcript. (Equity Teaching looked over it” (Equity Teaching Analysis Project
Analysis Project 2001) 2006). Even though the gender gap in the NAEP
mathematics scores has not changed in the last
Like her peers, Megan found that the transcribing ten years, research has established that boys are
and coding of her teaching helped her become more becoming increasingly disaffiliated from schools
conscious about the amount of praise and criticism because of the classroom management strategies
she gave students. being used (Sullivan and Bishop 2005). Tarlie now
tries to address the behavior problems of both girls
Following preservice teachers and boys in her class.
into in-service placements
I recently observed some former preservice teach-
ers from my mathematics methods class who are Concluding Thoughts
currently teaching in nearby schools. Afterward, The methods used in the Equity Project are not lim-
when I interviewed them to learn how the Equity ited to elementary preservice teachers’ mathematics
Project has shaped their mathematics teaching, two instruction. The project could be used to uncover
themes emerged: (1) they ask questions of all the inequity in science (see Nelson
students to learn their thinking; and (2) they address 2006), literacy, and social stud-
behavioral problems equitably and consistently. ies teaching or used to reveal People who are
Wilma, an undergraduate student from spring 2003, in-service teachers’ inequitable
commented on what she had learned from the
Equity Project:
practices. Further, although this
project focused on gender ineq-
innumerate in the
It was really the first time that it [gender equity]
uity, it also has the potential for
teachers to examine inequitable
twenty-first century
had ever even been brought to [my] attention—
the idea that you may not realize that you are
practices with minority students
and students from different will increasingly
calling on the same kids all the time and that you socioeconomic status.
could be basing a whole lot of assumptions that The Equity Project provides find themselves in
may not be true for your class because you feel teachers only an early indica-
like they totally get it when you really are only tion of equitable instructional the same position
calling on five kids. (Equity Teaching Analysis practices and only from one per-
Project 2006) spective—verbal interactions. as those who were
To further investigate gender
Wilma’s teaching reflected this idea of asking all
her students questions about their thinking. She
equity, teachers need to examine
more than the verbal interac-
illiterate in the
directed 53 low-level and 20 high-level questions
to different students in the class. Many high-level
tions of one lesson because
lessons can vary considerably.
twentieth century.
questions were follow-ups to low-level questions. As they work with students,
When queried about why she asked these questions, teachers should consider long-term trends that may
Wilma responded, “Because I want to see where exist in their own teaching. One way to address
their thinking is and what misconceptions they these trends is for teachers to repeatedly investigate
have, if any. I’m trying to get a quick check in with their teaching over time to see if these inequitable
everyone and then follow up with certain students practices persist and if the self-prescribed interven-
depending on what they initially said or where they tion plans had positive effects on students who were
are in their understanding” (Equity Teaching Anal- initially marginalized. Other areas of equity that
ysis Project 2006). For this lesson, questioning stu- teachers should examine include the curriculum
dents was an integral part of Wilma’s instruction. (Boaler 2002) and student assessment (Morgan and
For Tarlie, an undergraduate during fall 2004, Watson 2002). Teachers can work toward equity in
the Equity Project made her realize that she was these areas by determining whether the activities
much harder on boys than on girls regarding behav- are engaging for all students, whether the problems
ioral problems. “I [was] more likely to call a boy, or tasks allow struggling students to be successful
to tell him to stop doing something and recognize and gifted students to be challenged, and whether
that he’s doing something wrong when there’s a the interpretative judgments on student assessments
girl right there doing the exact same thing and I are consistent and rubric based.
Teaching Children Mathematics / March 2007 393

7. Figure 4
Elementary preservice teacher’s graph based on the data summary sheet
Teacher Analysis Data Graph
120%
Boys %
Girls %
100%
Whole Class %
Total %
80%
Percentage
60%
40%
20%
0%
Pr-Ac Pr-Non AcCr- AcCr- Non Non Q-LL Q-HL AcInt- AcIn- Inf- Inf- Tallies
Ac Int Eff AcCr- AcCr- Fac ShCt Aca Non
M H Ac
Verbal Interaction Categories
Key: Pr-Ac—Praise, academic; Pr-Non Ac—Praise, nonacademic; AcCr-Int—Academic criticism, intel-
lectual quality; AcCr-Eff—Academic criticism, effort; Non AcCr-M—Nonacademic criticism, mild; Non
AcCr-H—Nonacademic criticism, harsh; Q-LL—Questions, low-level; Q-HL—Questions, high-level; AcInt-
Fac—Academic intervention, facilitates; AcIn-ShCt—Academic intervention, short-circuits; Inf-Aca—Infor-
mation, academic; Inf-Non Ac—Information, nonacademic
The means of combating inequitable teaching course. This approach also highlights who receives
practices are awareness and action. Systematic more substantive feedback during mathematics
analysis of a transcript of teacher-student dialogue instruction and who is singled out for behavioral
and graphing coded data illuminate the type of ver- problems. These are issues that affect all students,
bal interactions teachers used in their instruction. not just one gender. Several research and practitio-
This approach highlights whether a teacher limits ner articles examine and address equity in instruc-
opportunities for groups of students to learn, limits tion (see scholargoogle.com). Particularly helpful
opportunities for building conceptual understand- readings to use with preservice teachers should
ing, or limits participation in mathematical dis- begin with the definition of the Equity Principle
394 Teaching Children Mathematics / March 2007

8. (NCTM 2000) and include Cohen (1994), Gilbert Figure 5
(2001), Levi (2000), Perez (2000), and Rubel and
Meyer (2005). Sample reflection questions for Equity Project written report
Questions to think about as you write your paper
Did you notice that you were asking higher-order questions to one gender
References more often than to the other? Why did this occur?
Boaler, Jo. “Learning from Teaching: Exploring the Re- Did you notice that you were providing mild criticism to one gender more
lationship between Reform Curriculum and Equity.” often than to the other? Why might this be?
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 33 Were you deliberately trying to change the natural outcome of the data by
(July 2002): 239–58 being deliberate in whom you were calling on? Why did a certain group of stu-
Cohen, Elizabeth G. Designing Groupwork: Strategies dents participate less? Is the quality of your interaction with certain students
for the Heterogeneous Classroom. New York: Teach- favoring or disfavoring their learning experience?
ers College Press, 1994. Did a group of students dominate the dialogue? Why would this be?
Equity Teaching Analysis Project. Interviews conducted
2001–6. Discuss your data analysis and its implications
Fennema, Elizabeth, Thomas Carpenter, Victoria Ja- Were disruptive students getting more “air time”? What does this mean for
cobs, Megan Franke, and Linda Levi. “A Longitudi- the learning of students who were well behaved?
nal Study of Gender Difference in Young Children’s Were you asking more low-level questions than high-level questions? What
Mathematical Thinking.” Educational Researcher 27 does this mean for the type of instruction you are providing?
(June–July 1998): 6–11. Do your interactions consist mainly of providing academic information and
Gilbert, Melissa C. “Applying the Equity Principle.” asking low-level questions? What does this mean for all students’ ability to
Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School 7 (Sep- learn mathematics?
tember 2001): 18–19, 36. How can gender differences in the classroom unintentionally lead to differenc-
Hanson, Katherine. Teaching Mathematics Effectively es in your students’ performance, achievement, and motivation? Discuss what
and Equitably to Females. New York: ERIC Clear- this means for your instruction and your students’ ability to learn from you.
inghouse on Urban Education, Institute for Urban and
Minority Education, 1992. Examine your transcript for the interactions that occurred after you asked
Lampert, Magdalene. Teaching Problems and the Prob- questions or provided instruction to the whole class
lems of Teaching. New Haven, CT: Yale University Who responded to you? Whom did you call on? Were the same students
Press, 2001. responding to you when you asked questions to the whole class? How did you
Levi, Linda. “Gender Equity in Mathematics Education.” respond to them? What was the gender ratio for students you called on after
Teaching Children Mathematics 7 (October 2000): asking a question to the whole group?
101–5.
Martin, Brian. “Mathematics and Social Interest.” In
Ethnomathematics: Changing Eurocentrism in Math- Mathematics for All!” Mathematics Teaching in the
ematics Education, edited by A. B. Powell and M. Middle School 10 (May 2005): 479–83.
Frankenstein, pp. 155–72. Albany, NY: State Univer- Shepardson, Daniel, and Edward Pizzini. “Gender Bias
sity of New York Press, 1997. in the Classroom—A Self-evaluation.” Science and
McGraw, Rebecca, Sarah Theule Lubienski, and Mari- Children (November–December 1991): 38–41.
lyn E. Strutchens. “A Closer Look at Gender in NAEP Sullivan, Mary, and Penny Bishop. “Disaffiliated Boys:
Mathematics Achievement and Affect Data: Intersec- Perspectives on Friendship and School Success.”
tions with Achievement, Race/Ethnicity, and Socio- Middle School Journal 37 (November 2005): 22–30.
economic Status.” Journal for Research in Mathemat- Zaslavsky, Claudia. The Multicultural Math Classroom:
ics Education 37 (March 2006): 129–50. Bringing in the World. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann,
Morgan, Candia, and Anne Watson. “The Interpretative 1996. s
Nature of Teachers’ Assessment of Students’ Math-
ematics: Issues for Equity.” Journal for Research in
Mathematics Education 33 (March 2002): 78–110.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM).
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics.
Reston, VA: NCTM, 2000.
Nelson, Tamara. “Using Guided Video Reflection to
Learn about Equity in Elementary Science Educa-
tion.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
American Educational Research Association, San
Francisco, April 2006.
Paley, Vivian. “On Listening to What Children Say.” Har-
vard Educational Review 56 (May 1986): 122–31.
Perez, Christina. “Equity in the Standards-Based El-
ementary Mathematics Classroom.” Focus 7 (April
2000): 28–31.
Rubel, Laurie, and Margaret R. Meyer. “The Pursuit of
Teaching Children Mathematics / March 2007 395