Groupthink phenomenon .. Translated and updated with other knowledge about team decision making and constructive controversy

1. Groupthink
(‫ﺍﻟﺗﻔﻛﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﺟﻣﺎﻋﻲ )ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻝ ﺍﻟﺟﻣﻌﻲ‬
Translated and updated by Tarek Salah: tarek.salah.kamel@gmail.com
From Original source: www.psysr.org/about/pubs_resources/groupthinkpresentation.ppt

2. Part 1
1. What is it?
‫ﻣﺎ ﻫﻭ؟‬
2. Why should we care about it?
‫ﻟﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﻋﻠﻳﻧﺎ ﺍﻻﻫﺗﻣﺎﻡ ﺑﻪ؟‬
3. What can we do about it?
‫ﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﻣﻛﻧﻧﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻧﻔﻌﻝ ﺣﻳﺎﻟﻪ؟‬
Part 2
Supplement about Decision Making and Constructive Controversy
‫ﻣﻠﺣﻕ ﻫﺎﻡ ﻋﻥ ﺃﺳﺎﻟﻳﺏ ﺍﺗﺧﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﻘﺭﺍﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﺩﺭﻳﺏ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﺍﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﻧﺎء‬

3. 1. What is groupthink? 1 of 2
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• Groupthink is a psychological
phenomenon that occurs within groups of
people. It is the mode of thinking that
happens when the desire for harmony in
a decision-making group overrides a
realistic appraisal of alternatives. Group
members try to minimize conflict and
reach a consensus decision without
critical evaluation of alternative ideas or
viewpoints.
‫• ﺍﻟﺗﻔﻛﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﺟﻣﺎﻋﻲ ﻫﻭ ﻅﺎﻫﺭﺓ ﻧﻔﺳﻳﺔ ﺗﺣﺩﺙ ﺩﺍﺧﻝ ﺟﻣﺎﻋﺎﺕ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺑﺷﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺻﻭﺭﺓ ﻁﺭﻳﻘﺔ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺗﻔﻛﻳﺭ ﺗﻅﻬﺭ ﻋﻧﺩﻣﺎ ﺗﻛﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﻏﺑﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﻧﺳﺟﺎﻡ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺍﺗﺧﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﻘﺭﺍﺭ ﻁﺎﻏﻳﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻣﺣﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﺗﻘﻭﻳﻡ ﻭﺍﻗﻌﻲ ﻟﻠﺑﺩﺍﺋﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺗﻠﻔﺔ. ﺃﻓﺭﺍﺩ ﺍﻟﺟﻣﺎﻋﺔ ﻳﺣﺎﻭﻟﻭﻥ ﺗﻘﻠﻳﻝ ﺍﻟﺧﻼﻓﺎﺕ ﻟﻠﻭﺻﻭﻝ‬
.‫ﺇﻟﻰ ﻗﺭﺍﺭ ﺗﻭﺍﻓﻘﻲ ﺑﺩﻭﻥ ﺗﻘﻭﻳﻡ ﻧﻘﺩﻱ ﻟﻸﻓﻛﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺑﺩﻳﻠﺔ ﻭﻭﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺭ ﺍﻷﺧﺭﻯ‬

4. 1. What is groupthink? 2 of 2
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• Groupthink occurs when a group
makes faulty decisions because group
pressures lead to a deterioration of
“Mental Efficiency, Reality Testing, and
Moral Judgment”
(Irving Janis, 1972, p. 9)
• The primary socially negative cost of
groupthink is the loss of individual
creativity, uniqueness, and independent
thinking
‫ﺑﺎﺗﺧﺎﺫ‬ ‫ﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ‬ ‫ﺗﻘﻭﻡ‬ ‫ﻋﻧﺩﻣﺎ‬ ‫ﻳﺣﺩﺙ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺟﻣﺎﻋﻲ‬ ‫• ﺍﻟﺗﻔﻛﻳﺭ‬
، ‫ﻗﺭﺍﺭﺍﺕ ﺧﺎﻁﺋﺔ ﺑﺳﺑﺏ ﺿﻐﻁ ﺍﻟﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﻳﺅﺩﻱ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺗﺩﻫﻭﺭ "ﺍﻟﻛﻔﺎءﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻠﻳﺔ‬
”‫ﻭﺍﺧﺗﺑﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻭﺍﻗﻊ ، ﻭﺍﻟﺣﻛﻡ ﺍﻷﺧﻼﻗﻲ‬
‫• ﺍﻟﺗﻛﻠﻔﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺳﻠﺑﻳﺔ ﺍﺟﺗﻣﺎﻋﻳﺎ ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺗﻔﻛﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﺟﻣﺎﻋﻲ ﻫﻭ ﻓﻘﺩﺍﻥ ﺍﻹﺑﺩﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻔﺭﺩﻱ ، ﻭﻏﻳﺎﺏ‬
.‫ﺗﻣﻳﺯﻩ ، ﻭﺗﻔﻛﻳﺭﻩ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﻘﻝ‬

5. ‫‪Symptoms of Groupthink‬‬
‫ﺍﻷﻋﺭﺍﺽ‬
‫.1‬ ‫‪Type 1: (Overestimations of the‬‬ ‫1. ﺍﻟﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﺍﻷﻭﻟﻰ: )ﺍﻟﻣﺑﺎﻟﻐﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻘﻳﻳﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﺓ‬
‫)‪group—its power and morality‬‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺿﻳﻠﺔ(‬
‫.1‬ ‫‪Illusion of invulnerability to failure‬‬ ‫ُ‬
‫1. ﻭﻫﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺎﻋﺔ )ﻧﺣﻥ ﻻ ﻧﻘﻬﺭ ﻭﻻ ﻧﻔﺷﻝ(‬
‫.2‬ ‫‪Unquestioned belief in inherent‬‬ ‫2. ﺍﻻﻋﺗﻘﺎﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺧﻼﻕ/ﺍﻟﻔﺿﻳﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺄﺻﻠﺔ‬
‫‪morality‬‬
‫2. ﺍﻟﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺛﺎﻧﻳﺔ )ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻠﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﻐﻠﻘﺔ(‬
‫.2‬ ‫)‪Type 2: (Closed-mindedness‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺗﺳﻭﻳﻎ/ﺍﻟﺗﺑﺭﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﺟﻣﺎﻋﻲ/ﺍﻟﻣﺷﺗﺭﻙ )ﻋﺩﻡ ﺍﻋﺗﺑﺎﺭ‬ ‫1.‬
‫.1‬ ‫‪Collective rationalization‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺗﺣﺫﻳﺭﺍﺕ ﻭﻣﺭﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﺍﻻﻓﺗﺭﺍﺿﺎﺕ(‬
‫.2‬ ‫‪Stereotyped views of out-groups‬‬ ‫ﺗﻧﻣﻳﻁ ﺍﻵﺧﺭﻳﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﻼﻑ ﺍﻷﺧﻼﻕ ﺍﻟﺭﺷﻳﺩﺓ.‬ ‫2.‬
‫.3‬ ‫‪Type 3: (Pressures toward‬‬ ‫3. ﺍﻟﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺛﺎﻟﺛﺔ )ﺍﻟﺿﻐﻁ ﺍﻟﺩﺍﻓﻊ ﻟﻠﺗﻭﺣﺩ(‬
‫)‪uniformity‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺿﻐﻁ ﺍﻟﻣﺑﺎﺷﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺎﻟﻑ/ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺷﻕ/ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺎﺭﺽ‬ ‫1.‬
‫.1‬ ‫‪Direct pressure on dissenters‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺭﻗﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺫﺍﺗﻳﺔ‬ ‫2.‬
‫.2‬ ‫‪Self-censorship‬‬ ‫ﻭﻫﻡ ﺍﻹﺟﻣﺎﻉ‬ ‫3.‬
‫.3‬ ‫‪Illusion of unanimity‬‬ ‫ﺗﻧﺻﻳﺏ ﻁﻭﻋﻲ ﻟﺣﺭﺍﺱ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻝ ﺍﻟﺫﻳﻥ ﻳﺣﺟﺑﻭﻥ‬ ‫4.‬
‫.4‬ ‫‪Self-appointed ‘Mind-Guards’ that‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﻘﻠﻘﺔ‬
‫‪screen out valuable information‬‬

6. 1. Illusion of Invulnerability
ُ
(‫ﻭﻫﻡ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺎﻋﺔ )ﻧﺣﻥ ﻻ ﻧﻘﻬﺭ‬
• Creates excessive optimism
that encourages taking extreme
risks.
‫• ﻳﺧﻠﻕ ﺍﻟﺗﻔﺎﺅﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﻔﺭﻁ ﺍﻟﺫﻱ ﻳﺷﺟﻊ‬
.‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺎﻁﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺷﺩﻳﺩﺓ‬

7. 2. Unquestioned Belief in Inherent Morality
‫ﺍﻻﻋﺗﻘﺎﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﺧﻼﻕ/ﺍﻟﻔﺿﻳﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺄﺻﻠﺔ‬
• Members believe in the rightness of
their cause and therefore ignore the
ethical or moral consequences of
their decisions.
‫• ﺃﻋﺿﺎء ﺍﻟﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﻳﺅﻣﻧﻭﻥ ﺑﺻﻭﺍﺏ‬
‫ﻗﺿﻳﺗﻬﻡ، ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺗﺎﻟﻲ ﺗﺟﺎﻫﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻭﺍﻗﺏ‬
‫ﺍﻷﺧﻼﻗﻳﺔ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻧﻭﻳﺔ/ﺍﻷﺩﺑﻳﺔ ﻟﻘﺭﺍﺭﺍﺗﻬﻡ‬

8. 3. Collective Rationalization
‫ﺍﻟﺗﺳﻭﻳﻎ/ﺍﻟﺗﺑﺭﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﺟﻣﺎﻋﻲ/ﺍﻟﻣﺷﺗﺭﻙ‬
• Members discount warnings
and do not reconsider their
assumptions.
‫• ﻋﺩﻡ ﺍﻋﺗﺑﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺗﺣﺫﻳﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻭﻣﺭﺍﺟﻌﺔ ﺍﻻﻓﺗﺭﺍﺿﺎﺕ‬

9. 4. Stereotyped Views of Out-groups
.‫ﺗﻧﻣﻳﻁ ﺍﻵﺧﺭﻳﻥ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﻼﻑ ﺍﻷﺧﻼﻕ ﺍﻟﺭﺷﻳﺩﺓ‬
• Negative views of “enemy”
make effective responses to
conflict seem unnecessary
• Those who are opposed to the
group are weak, evil, biased,
spiteful, impotent, or stupid.
‫• ﻭﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻧﻅﺭ ﺍﻟﺳﻠﺑﻳﺔ ﻋﻥ "ﺍﻟﻌﺩﻭ” ﺗﺟﻌﻝ‬
‫ﺍﻻﺳﺗﺟﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﻌﺎﻟﺔ ﻟﻠﺻﺭﺍﻉ ﻣﻌﻪ ﻻ ﻟﺯﻭﻡ‬
.‫ﻟﻬﺎ‬
‫• ﺃﻭﻟﺋﻙ ﺍﻟﺫﻳﻥ ﻳﻌﺎﺭﺿﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﺿﻌﻔﺎء‬
‫، ﻣﺗﺣﻳﺯﻭﻥ، ﺃﺷﺭﺍﺭ ، ﺣﺎﻗﺩﻭﻥ ، ﻋﺎﺟﺯﻭﻥ‬
.‫، ﺃﻏﺑﻳﺎء‬

10. 5. Direct Pressure on Dissenters
‫ﺍﻟﺿﻐﻁ ﺍﻟﻣﺑﺎﺷﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺎﻟﻑ/ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺷﻕ/ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺎﺭﺽ‬
• Members are under pressure not
to express arguments against any
of the group’s views.
‫• ﻳﺗﻌﺭﺽ ﺍﻷﻓﺭﺍﺩ ﻟﺿﻐﻭﻁ ﺗﺣﻭﻝ ﺩﻭﻥ‬
‫ﺇﺑﺩﺍﺋﻬﻡ ﺣﺟﺟﻬﻡ ﺗﺟﺎﻩ ﻭﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﻧﻅﺭ‬
.‫ﺍﻟﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ‬

11. 6. Self-censorship
‫ﺍﻟﺭﻗﺎﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﺫﺍﺗﻳﺔ‬
• Doubts and deviations from
the perceived group
consensus are not expressed
‫• ﺍﻟﺷﻛﻭﻙ ﻭﺍﻻﻧﺣﺭﺍﻓﺎﺕ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻻﺗﻔﺎﻕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺟﻣﺎﻋﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺗﺻﻭﺭﺍﺕ ﻻ ﻳﺗﻡ‬
.ً ‫ﺍﻟﺗﻌﺑﻳﺭ ﻋﻧﻬﺎ ﺫﺍﺗﻳﺎ‬

12. 7. Illusion of Unanimity
‫ﻭﻫﻡ ﺍﻹﺟﻣﺎﻉ‬
 The majority view and
judgments are
assumed to be
unanimous.
‫ ﻳﻔﺗﺭﺽ ﻓﻲ ﺭﺃﻱ‬
ُ
‫ﺍﻷﻏﻠﺑﻳﺔ ﻭﺃﺣﻛﺎﻣﻬﺎ ﺃﻥ‬
‫ﺗﻛﻭﻥ ﺑﺎﻹﺟﻣﺎﻉ‬

13. 8. Self-appointed ‘Mind-Guards’
‫ﺗﻧﺻﻳﺏ ﻁﻭﻋﻲ ﻟﺣﺭﺍﺱ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﻝ‬
• Members protect the group and the
leader from information that is
problematic or contradictory to the
group’s cohesiveness, view,
and/or decisions
‫• ﺍﻷﻋﺿﺎء ﻳﺣﻣﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﻭﻗﻳﺎﺩﺗﻬﺎ‬
‫ﺑﺣﺟﺏ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺑﺩﻭ ﺇﺷﻛﺎﻟﻳﺔ ﺃﻭ‬
‫ﻣﺗﻌﺎﺭﺿﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺭﺍﺑﻁ ﺍﻟﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﻭﺭﺃﻳﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻭﻗﺭﺍﺭﺍﺗﻬﺎ‬

15. Video of NASA groupthink famous Case
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qYpbStMyz_I&feature=topics
Reason for space shuttle Challenger disaster

16. ‫‪Causes of Groupthink‬‬
‫ﺍﻷﺳﺑﺎﺏ‬
‫‪1. High group cohesiveness‬‬ ‫1. ﻗﻭﺓ ﺗﻣﺎﺳﻙ ﻭﺗﺭﺍﺑﻁ ﺍﻟﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ ﻣﻥ ﺃﺟﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﻘﺎء‬
‫2. ﻋﻳﻭﺏ ﺍﻟﺑﻧﺎء ﺍﻟﻬﻳﻛﻠﻲ ﻟﻠﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ:‬
‫:‪2. Structural faults‬‬
‫1. ﺍﻧﻌﺯﺍﻝ ﺍﻟﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺔ‬
‫.1‬ ‫‪insulation of the group‬‬
‫2. ﺍﻓﺗﻘﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻘﻳﺎﺩﺓ‬
‫.2‬ ‫‪lack of impartial leadership‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻧﺯﻳﻬﺔ/ﺍﻟﻣﻭﺿﻭﻋﻳﺔ/ﺍﻟﻣﺣﺎﻳﺩﺓ/ﻏﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺣﻳﺯﺓ‬
‫.3‬ ‫‪lack of norms requiring‬‬ ‫3. ﻏﻳﺎﺏ ﻗﻭﺍﻋﺩ ﺍﺗﺧﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﻘﺭﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺗﻲ ﺗﺗﻁﻠﺏ‬
‫‪methodological procedures‬‬ ‫ﺇﺟﺭﺍءﺍﺕ ﻣﻧﻬﺟﻳﺔ‬
‫.4‬ ‫‪homogeneity of members' social‬‬ ‫4. ﺗﺟﺎﻧﺱ ﺍﻟﺧﻠﻔﻳﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺟﺗﻣﺎﻋﻳﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻳﺩﻳﻭﻟﻭﺟﻳﺔ‬
‫‪backgrounds and ideology‬‬ ‫ﻟﻸﻓﺭﺍﺩ‬
‫:‪3. Situational context‬‬ ‫3. ﺍﻟﺳﻳﺎﻕ ﺍﻟﻅﺭﻓﻲ‬
‫.1‬ ‫‪highly stressful external threats‬‬ ‫1. ﺗﻬﺩﻳﺩﺍﺕ ﺧﺎﺭﺟﻳﺔ ﺗﺅﺩﻱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺷﺩﺓ‬
‫.2‬ ‫‪recent failures‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺗﻭﺗﺭ/ﺍﻹﺟﻬﺎﺩ/ﺍﻟﺿﻐﻁ‬
‫.3‬ ‫‪excessive difficulties on the‬‬ ‫2. ﺇﺧﻔﺎﻗﺎﺕ ﺣﺩﻳﺛﺔ‬
‫‪decision-making task‬‬ ‫3. ﺻﻌﻭﺑﺎﺕ ﻣﺗﺯﺍﻳﺩﺓ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻬﻣﺔ ﺻﻧﺎﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﺭﺍﺭ‬
‫.4‬ ‫‪moral dilemmas‬‬ ‫4. ﻣﻌﺿﻼﺕ ﺃﺧﻼﻗﻳﺔ‬

17. ‫?‪2. Why should we care about groupthink‬‬
‫ﻟﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﻋﻠﻳﻧﺎ ﺍﻻﻫﺗﻣﺎﻡ ﺑﻪ؟ )ﻧﻣﺎﺫﺝ ﺃﺣﺩﺍﺙ ﺃﻣﺭﻳﻛﻳﺔ(‬

18. Failur e to pr otect for ces at Pear l
Har bor in 1941
1941 ‫ﺍﻟﻔﺷﻝ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻣﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻳﺭﻝ ﻫﺎﺭﺑﺭ‬

19. ‫1691 ‪Bay of Pigs Fiasco in‬‬
‫ﻓﺷﻝ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺧﻠﻳﺞ ﺍﻟﺧﻧﺎﺯﻳﺭ ﻟﻘﻠﺏ ﺍﻟﺣﻛﻡ ﻓﻲ ﻛﻭﺑﺎ ﻓﻲ 1691‬

20. US Escalation of the Vietnam War
‫ﺗﺻﻌﻳﺩ ﺃﻣﺭﻳﻛﺎ ﻟﻠﺣﺭﺏ ﻓﻲ ﻓﻳﺗﻧﺎﻡ‬

21. Failed Rescue Attempt of Hostages at US
Embassy in Ir an
‫ﻓﺷﻝ ﻋﻣﻠﻳﺔ ﺇﻧﻘﺎﺫ ﺭﻫﺎﺋﻥ ﺍﻟﺳﻔﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻷﻣﺭﻳﻛﻳﺔ ﺑﻁﻬﺭﺍﻥ‬

22. US Invasion of Iraq: Groupthink?
‫ﻏﺯﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺍﻕ‬

23. Predetermined Policy Decision about Iraq
and Saddam Hussein
‫ﺍﻟﺭﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﺳﻳﺎﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺑﻕ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺍﻕ ﻭﺻﺩﺍﻡ ﺣﺳﻳﻥ‬
• Discount warnings and do not
reconsider their
assumptions even as other
countries challenge them
‫• ﻋﺩﻡ ﺍﻋﺗﺑﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺗﺣﺫﻳﺭﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻻﻓﺗﺭﺍﺿﺎﺕ ﺣﺗﻰ ﻣﻊ ﺗﺷﻛﻳﻙ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺩﻭﻝ ﺍﻷﺧﺭﻯ ﻓﻳﻬﺎ‬

24. Dealing with Dissenters
‫ﺍﻟﺗﻌﺎﻣﻝ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺎﺭﺿﻳﻥ/ﺍﻟﻣﺧﺎﻟﻔﻳﻥ/ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺷﻘﻳﻥ‬
• Pressure not to express
arguments against any of
the administration’s
actions.
‫• ﺍﻟﺿﻐﻁ ﻟﻌﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﺗﻌﺑﻳﺭ ﻋﻥ‬
‫ﺣﺟﺞ ﺗﺧﺎﻟﻑ ﺃﻓﻌﺎﻝ ﺍﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻷﻣﺭﻳﻛﻳﺔ‬

25. Imminent Danger from Weapons of Mass
Destruction
‫ﺍﻟﺧﻁﺭ ﺍﻟﻭﺷﻳﻙ ﻣﻥ ﺃﺳﻠﺣﺔ ﺍﻟﺩﻣﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺷﺎﻣﻝ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺭﺍﻕ‬
• Selective bias in
processing information
at hand
‫• ﺍﻧﺣﻳﺎﺯ ﺍﻧﺗﻘﺎﺋﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺟﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻣﻌﻠﻭﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻣﺗﺎﺣﺔ‬

26. ‫?‪3. What can we do about it‬‬
‫ﻣﺎﺫﺍ ﻳﻣﻛﻧﻧﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻧﻔﻌﻝ ﺣﻳﺎﻟﻪ؟‬

27. Remedies for Groupthink 1 of 3
‫ﺍﻟﻌﻼﺟﺎﺕ‬
• The leader should assign the role of critical evaluator to each
member. This allows each member to freely air objections and doubts
37 ^7 § �§ 3} $�� ��� ℠1� 7 }£9 .5 $�5} �1�1 � �1$ �}$¹ $�� �� 37 8" $]* } 4� •
�° 87 � �} 7 �� 7
.8�1�# 1 8"* }�"7}
5
• The leader should avoid stating preferences and expectations at the
outset
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} $"} � 7� �* 8�1"� 5 } ℗ �� 7
• Each member of the group should routinely discuss the groups'
deliberations with a trusted associate and report back to the group
on the associate's reactions
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.�7 � }£9 �8� $� 37 ^711℗ �
�# } 1�

28. Remedies for Groupthink 2 of 3
‫ﺍﻟﻌﻼﺟﺎﺕ‬
• One or more experts should be invited to each meeting on a
staggered basis and encouraged to challenge views of the
members.
‫ﻳﻧﺑﻐﻲ ﺩﻋﻭﺓ ﺧﺑﻳﺭ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﺛﺭ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻛﻝ ﺍﺟﺗﻣﺎﻉ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻭﺍﻋﻳﺩ ﻣﺗﻌﺎﻗﺑﺔ ﻭﺗﺷﺟﻳﻌﻬﻡ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺣﺩﻱ‬ •
‫ﻭﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﻧﻅﺭ ﺍﻷﻋﺿﺎء‬
• At least one member should be given the role of devil's advocate (to
question assumptions and plans)
‫• ﻳﻧﺑﻐﻲ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻠﻌﺏ ﻋﺿﻭﺍ ﻭﺍﺣﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻗﻝ ﺩﻭﺭ ”ﻣﺣﺎﻣﻲ ﺍﻟﺷﻳﻁﺎﻥ“ )ﻟﻳﺷﻛﻙ/ﻟﻳﺳﺗﺟﻭﺏ/ﻟﻳﻧﺎﻗﺵ‬
ُ
(‫ﻓﻲ ﺍﻻﻓﺗﺭﺍﺿﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺧﻁﻁ ﻭﻳﻔﻧﺩﻫﺎ‬
• The leader should make sure that a sizeable block of time is set aside
to survey warning signals.
‫• ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻘﺎﺋﺩ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺗﺭﻙ ﻗﺩﺭﺍً ﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﻭﻗﺕ ﻟﺩﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻹﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺗﺣﺫﻳﺭﻳﺔ ... ﻳﺗﺭﻙ ﻓﺭﺻﺔ ﻟﻠﻣﺭﺍﺟﻌﺔ‬
.‫ﻣﺭﺓ ﺃﺧﺭﻯ ﺑﻌﺩ ﻗﺭﺍءﺓ ﺁﺧﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﺟﺩﺍﺕ‬

29. Remedies for Groupthink 3 of 3
‫ﺍﻟﻌﻼﺟﺎﺕ‬
• The organization should set up several independent groups, working
on the same problem.
‫• ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻣﺅﺳﺳﺔ ﺗﻛﻭﻳﻥ ﻣﺟﻣﻭﻋﺎﺕ ﻣﺳﺗﻘﻠﺔ ﺗﻌﻣﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﺣﺙ ﻧﻔﺱ ﺍﻟﻣﺷﻛﻠﺔ‬
• Training and adapting to constructive controversy exercises (check
supplement at the end)
(‫• ﺍﻟﺗﺩﺭﻳﺏ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻌﻭﺩ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﻟﻳﺏ ﺍﻟﺟﺩﺍﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﻧﺎء )ﻣﻠﺣﻕ ﺗﻔﺻﻳﻝ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﻣﻭﺿﻭﻉ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ‬

32. ‫‪Knowledge is Power‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻘﻭﺓ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻣﻌﺭﻓﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻌﻠﻡ‬

33. Think about underlying policies, assumptions and
implications
‫ﺍﻟﺗﺄﻣﻝ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻔﻛﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻣﻳﻕ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺳﻳﺎﺳﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻻﻓﺗﺭﺍﺿﺎﺕ ﻭﺗﺩﺍﻋﻳﺎﺗﻬﺎ‬

34. ‫ﺍﻟﺳﻣﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺣﻘﻳﻘﻲ ﺑﺗﺟﺭﺩ ﻭﺇﻧﺻﺎﻑ ﻟﻠﺑﺣﺙ ﺍﻟﺣﺛﻳﺙ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﺻﻭﺍﺏ ﻭﺍﻟﺣﻘﻳﻘﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻧﺎﻓﻊ‬
‫ﻭﻓﺭﺡ ﺍﻟﻧﻔﺱ ﺑﺎﻟﺣﻘﺎﺋﻕ ﻭﺍﻧﺻﻳﺎﻋﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﺗﻐﻳﺭ ﺍﻟﺳﻠﺱ ﻣﻌﻬﺎ‬

35. Challenge Others to Think
‫ﺗﺣﺩﻯ ﺍﻵﺧﺭﻳﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻔﻛﻳﺭﻫﻡ‬

37. References
Groupthink: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupthink

38. Supplement about Decision Making
and Constructive Controversy
‫ﻣﻠﺣﻕ ﻋﻥ ﺍﺗﺧﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﻘﺭﺍﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺟﺩﺍﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﻧﺎء‬

42. ‫ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺘﺎن ﻣﺸﻬﻮرﺗﺎن ﻻﺗﺨﺎذ اﻟﻘﺮار ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺗﺣﻘﻳﻕ ﻟﻠﻭﺻﻭﻝ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺭﺃﻱ‬ ‫ﺗﺄﻳﻳﺩ ﺍﺗﺟﺎﻩ ﻣﺣﺩﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺭﺃﻱ‬
‫)‪(Inquir y‬‬ ‫)‪(Advocacy‬‬
‫ﺣﻝ ﻣﺗﻌﺎﻭﻥ ﻟﻠﻣﺷﻛﻠﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﺳﺎﺑﻘﺔ‬ ‫ﻓﻛﺭﺓ ﺍﺗﺧﺎﺫ ﺍﻟﻘﺭﺍﺭ‬
‫ﺍﻻﺧﺗﺑﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﺗﻘﻳﻳﻡ‬ ‫ﺍﻹﻗﻧﺎﻉ ﻭﺟﻠﺏ ﺍﻷﻧﺻﺎﺭ ﻟﻠﺭﺃﻱ‬ ‫ﻫﺩﻑ ﺍﻟﻣﻧﺎﻗﺷﺔ‬
‫ﻣﻔﻛﺭ ﻧﻘﺩﻱ‬ ‫ﻣﺗﻛﻠﻡ ﻋﻥ ﺍﺗﺟﺎﻩ ﻣﺣﺩﺩ‬ ‫ﺩﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻣﺷﺎﺭﻙ‬
‫ﻣﺣﺎﻭﻟﺔ ﺍﻷﻗﻧﺎﻉ ﺑﻘﻭﺓ ، ﺍﻟﺩﻓﺎﻉ‬
‫ﻋﺭﺽ ﺃﺩﻟﺔ ﻣﻌﺗﺩﻟﺔ ، ﺍﻧﺗﻅﺎﺭ‬
‫ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﻧﻬﺞ ﺍﻟﻣﺳﺗﻌﻣﻝ ﺑﻘﻭﺓ ،‬
‫ﺃﻱ ﺭﺅﻳﺔ ﺃﺧﺭﻯ ، ﺗﻘﺑﻝ ﺍﻟﻧﻘﺩ‬ ‫ﺷﻛﻝ ﺍﻟﺳﻠﻭﻙ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺗﻘﻠﻳﻝ ﻣﻥ ﻧﻘﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺿﻌﻑ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺑﻧﺎء ﺑﻣﻭﺿﻭﻋﻳﺔ ﻭﻣﻧﻁﻘﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻅﺎﻫﺭﺓ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺧﻔﻳﺔ‬
‫ﻣﻘﺩﺭ‬ ‫ﻏﻳﺭ ﻣﺷﺟﻊ‬ ‫ﺭﺃﻱ ﺍﻷﻗﻠﻳﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻣﺗﻼﻙ ﺟﻣﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﻠﻘﺭﺍﺭ‬ ‫ﻓﺎﺋﺯﻳﻥ ﻭﺧﺎﺳﺭﻳﻥ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻧﺗﺎﺋﺞ‬

44. ‫ﺍﻟﺟﺩﺍﻝ ﺍﻟﺑﻧﺎء‬
Constr uctive Contr over sy
(Translated from original work of Professor Karl Smith, from
University of Minnesota)
http://www.ce.umn.edu/~smith/ check his research work

45. ‫اﺳﺘﻴﻌﺎب اﻻﺧﺘﻼف ﻓﻲ اﻟﺮأي‬
‫• اﻻﺧﺘﻼف ﻓﻲ اﻟﺮأي أﻣﺮ ﻻ ﻣﻔﺮ ﻣﻨﻪ ، وﻫﺬا اﻻﺧﺘﻼف ﻳﺠﺐ أن ﻳﺘﻢ‬
‫ٍ َ ٍ‬
‫ﺑﺜﻪ ﺑﻮﺿﻮح ، وﻟﻜﻦ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﻴّﺲ ﻣﺘﺤﻀﺮ.‬
‫• اﻟﺘﺤﻀﺮ واﻟﻜﻴﺎﺳﺔ ﻳﻌﻨﻴﺎن اﺣﺘﺮام اﻵﺧﺮﻳﻦ ، واﻻﺳﺘﻌﺪاد ﻟﻼﺳﺘﻤﺎع اﻟﻰ‬
‫وﺟﻬﺎت ﻧﻈﺮ ﺑﻌﻀﻨﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ ، وﻣﻤﺎرﺳﺔ ﺿﺒﻂ اﻟﻨﻔﺲ ﻓﻲ ﻛﻴﻔﻴﺔ اﻧﺘﻘﺎد‬
‫ﺗﺼﺮﻓﺎت ووﺟﻬﺎت ﻧﻈﺮ اﻵﺧﺮﻳﻦ دون اﻧﺘﻘﺎد أﺷﺨﺎﺻﻬﻢ.‬
‫• ذﻟﻚ اﻟﺴﻠﻮك ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﺪال اﻟﻤﺘﺤﻀﺮ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎً ﻣﺎ ﻳﻘﻮد إﻟﻰ ﺣﻠﻮل ﺟﺪﻳﺪة‬
‫وﻣﺒﺘﻜﺮة ﻟﻠﻤﺸﺎﻛﻞ ، ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻳﺤﺪث ﻓﻲ ﺟﻮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﻴﺎﺳﺔ ،‬
‫واﻟﺘﻌﺎون ، واﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎع ﺣﻮل ﻫﺪف ﻣﺸﺘﺮك.‬

46. ‫اﺗﺨﺎذ اﻟﻘﺮار ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺠﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬
‫ﻋﺮض وﺟﻬﺎت اﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﰲ ﺟﻮ ﻣﻦ اﳊﺮﻳﺔ واﻟﻘﺒﻮل ﻣﻦ اﻵﺧﺮﻳﻦ.‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ واﻋﺘﺒﺎر اﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت ﰲ وﺟﻬﺎت اﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻛﺄﻣﺮ ﺑﺸﺮي ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻲ.‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺘﺰام اﳌﻮﺿﻮﻋﻴﺔ واﻟﻨﺰاﻫﺔ وﻋﺪم اﻟﺘﺤﻴﺰ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺴﺔ وﺟﻬﺎت اﻟﻨﻈﺮ.‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻃﻠﺐ اﻟﺘﻘﻴﻴﻢ اﻟﻨﻘﺪي.‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﻌﻴﲔ ﻣﻦ ﳝﺜﻞ دور اﳌﺨﺎﻟﻒ.‬ ‫•‬
‫اﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﳎﻤﻮﻋﺎت ﺗﺄﻳﻴﺪﻳﺔ ﻓﺮﻋﻴﺔ.‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺴﻤﺎح ﺑﻔﺮﺻﺔ أﺧﺮى ﻟﻼﺟﺘﻤﺎع واﲣﺎذ اﻟﻘﺮار.‬ ‫•‬

47. ‫ﻣﻬﺎرة وﺣﺮﻓﻴﺔ اﻻﺧﺘﻼف‬
‫ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ اﻟﻘﺮار اﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻲ ﻛﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﻛﺔ وﻟﻴﺲ ﻛﻤﻮﻗﻒ ﳒﺎح وﺧﺴﺎرة ﻷﺣﺪ‬
‫ﻣﺸﱰ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻔﺮﻳﻘﲔ.‬
‫اﻧﺘﻘﺎد اﻷﻓﻜﺎر وﻟﻴﺲ اﻷﺷﺨﺎص.‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻋﺘﺒﺎر ﻗﺪرة اﻵﺧﺮﻳﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ اﲣﺎذ رأي ﳐﺎﻟﻒ ﻣﻊ ﳐﺎﻟﻔﺘﻬﻢ ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ذﻫﺒﻮا إﻟﻴﻪ.‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻓﺼﻞ اﻟﻘﻴﻤﺔ اﻟﺸﺨﺼﻴﺔ ﻟﻸﻓﺮاد ﻣﻦ ردود ﻓﻌﻞ اﻵﺧﺮﻳﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ آراﺋﻬﻢ.‬ ‫•‬
‫إﺛﺮاء ﺗﻌﺪد اﻵراء ﻗﺒﻞ اﻻﺗﻔﺎق ﻋﻠﻰ رأي �ﺎﺋﻲ.‬ ‫•‬
‫ﲤﺜﻞ ﻣﻮﻗﻒ اﳌﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﻗﺒﻞ ﻧﻘﺪ رأﻳﻪ.‬ ‫•‬
‫إﻋﻄﺎء ﻛﻞ ﺷﺨﺺ داﺧﻞ ﻤﻟﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻟﻮاﺣﺪة ﺣﻘﻪ ﰲ اﻻﺳﺘﻤﺎع ﻟﻪ.‬ ‫•‬
‫اﺗﺒﺎع أﻛﺜﺮ اﻵراء ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ وﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﻟﻼﺗﻔﺎق ﺣﻮﳍﺎ.‬ ‫•‬

48. ‫ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ ﻟﻠﺠﺪال اﻟﺒﻨﺎء‬
‫أﻧﺎ أﻧﺘﻘﺪ اﻷﻓﻜﺎر وﻟﻴﺲ اﻷﺷﺨﺎص‬ ‫•‬
‫أﻧﺎ أﻧﺎﻗﺶ وأﻓﻨﺪ أﻓﻜﺎر اﳌﺨﺎﻟﻒ ﺑﺪون إﻇﻬﺎر أﻧﲏ ﺷﺨﺼﻴﺎً أﺧﺎﻟﻔﻬﺎ.‬ ‫•‬
‫أﻧﺎ أﺗﺬﻛﺮ داﺋﻤﺎً أﻧﻨﺎ ﰲ ﻫﺬا اﻷﻣﺮ ﺳﻮﻳﺎً ، ﻓﺒﺎﻟﺘﺎﱄ ﻛﻴﺰي ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻮﺻﻮل إﱃ أﻓﻀﻞ ﻗﺮار‬
‫ﺗﺮ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﺸﱰك وﻟﻴﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﻧﺘﺼﺎر ﻟﺮأﻳﻲ ﻓﻘﻂ.‬
‫أﻧﺎ أﺷﺠﻊ اﻟﻜﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﺔ وأﺣﺎول اﻟﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ اﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﳌﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﲟﻮﺿﻮع اﲣﺎذ اﻟﻘﺮار.‬
‫اﳌﺸﺎر‬ ‫•‬
‫أﻧﺎ أﺳﺘﻤﻊ إﱃ أﻓﻜﺎر اﳉﻤﻴﻊ ﺣﱴ ﻟﻮ ﻛﻨﺖ ﳐﺎﻟﻔﺎً ﳍﺎ ﳐﺎﻟﻔﺔ ﺻﺮﳛﺔ.‬ ‫•‬
‫أﻧﺎ أﻛﺮر ﻣﺎ ﲰﻌﺘﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺎﺋﻠﻪ ﻟﻮ ﻛﺎن ﻏﲑ واﺿﺢ ﻷﺗﺄﻛﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻓﻬﻤﻲ ﻟﻪ ﻓﻬﻤﺎً ﺻﺤﻴﺤﺎً.‬ ‫•‬
‫أﻧﺎ أﺣﺎول إﻇﻬﺎر ﻛﺎﻓﺔ اﳊﻘﺎﺋﻖ واﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﳌﺆﻳﺪ ﻟﻜﻼ اﻟﺮأﻳﲔ ﰒ أﺣﺎول اﳉﻤﻊ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻢ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ إذا ﻛﺎن اﳉﻤﻊ ﳑﻜﻨﺎً.‬
‫أﻧﺎ أﺗﺒﲎ اﻟﺮأي اﻟﺬي ﺧﺎﻟﻔﺘﻪ أوﻻً ﻣﱴ ﻇﻬﺮ ﱄ ﻗﻮة ﺣﺠﺘﻪ وﻏﻠﺒﺘﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻏﲑﻩ ﻣﻦ اﻵراء.‬ ‫•‬

49. ‫إﺟﺮاءات اﻟﺘﺪرﻳﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺠﺪال اﻟﺒﻨﺎء‬
‫اﻻﺳﺘﻌﺪاد ﻟﻠﺘﺪرﻳﺐ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻘﺴﻴﻢ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت واﺧﺘﻴﺎر اﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮﻋﺎت‬
‫• اﻗﺘﺮاﺣﺎت ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪم‬ ‫• اﻟﺨﻄﻮات‬
‫• أﻓﻀﻞ أدﻟﺘﻨﺎ ﻫﻲ ....‬ ‫• إﻋﺪاد وﺗﺤﻀﻴﺮ اﻷدﻟﺔ‬
‫• اﻟﺮأي ﻫﻮ ... واﻷدﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ...‬ ‫• ﻋﺮض اﻷدﻟﺔ‬
‫• ﻣﻮﻗﻔﻜﻢ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﻮﻓﻖ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ.... ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ‬ ‫• ﺣﻮار ﻣﻔﺘﻮح وﻣﺤﺎوﻟﺔ ﻧﻘﺾ أدﻟﺔ ﻛﻞ‬
‫ﻣﻮﻗﻔﻨﺎ أﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﻮﻓﻴﻘﺎً ﺑﺴﺒﺐ....‬ ‫ﻓﺮﻳﻖ‬
‫• ﻣﻮﻗﻔﻜﻢ ﻫﻮ .... ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ....‬ ‫• ﺗﺒﺎدل اﻷدوار‬
‫• ﻣﻮﻗﻔﻨﺎ ﺟﻤﻴﻌﺎً ﺑﻌﺪ اﻋﺘﺒﺎر اﻵراء‬ ‫• ﻃﺮح اﻟﺘﺤﻴﺰ وﻣﺤﺎوﻟﺔ اﻟﻮﺻﻮل ﻟﻠﺮأي‬
‫اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻫﻮ ...‬ ‫اﻟﺼﻮاب ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﺄﻟﺔ‬

50. ‫1- إﻋﺪاد وﺗﺤﻀﻴﺮ اﻷدﻟﺔ )5 دﻗﺎﺋﻖ( )‪(Preparing Positions‬‬
‫ﺗﻠﺨﻴﺺ اﻟﻨﻘﺎط اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ واﻷدﻟﺔ اﳌﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎ.‬ ‫1.‬
‫ﺗﺄﻛﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺔ ﻋﻀﻮي اﻟﻔﺮﻳﻖ ﰲ ﻋﺮض اﻷدﻟﺔ واﳌﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ.‬
‫ﻣﺸﺎر‬ ‫2.‬
‫اﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎل أﺳﺎﻟﻴﺐ ﳐﺘﻠﻔﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﺒﲑ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺮأي‬ ‫3.‬
‫اﻟﺘﻌﺒﲑ ﻋﻦ اﳌﻮﻗﻒ اﳌﺘﺨﺬ ﺑﻘﻮة واﺣﱰام ﺳﻮاء ﻛﻨﺖ ﻣﻌﻪ ﰲ اﳊﻘﻴﻘﺔ أم ﻻ.‬ ‫4.‬
‫أﺟﻞ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻷدﻟﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ اﳌﻔﺘﻮﺣﺔ.‬
‫ﱢ‬ ‫5.‬

51. ‫2- ﻋﺮض اﻷدﻟﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ رأي ﻣﺤﺪد )5 دﻗﺎﺋﻖ( )‪(Presenting Positions‬‬
‫1. ﻤﻟﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻷوﱃ ﺗﻌﱪ ﻋﻦ اﳌﻮﻗﻒ اﳌﺘﺨﺬ ﺑﻘﻮة واﺣﱰام ﺳﻮاء ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻣﻌﻪ ﰲ‬
‫اﳊﻘﻴﻘﺔ أم ﻻ.‬
‫2. ﻤﻟﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻷﺧﺮى ﺗﺴﺘﻤﻊ ﻓﻘﻂ وﺗﺄﺧﺬ ﻠﺤﻮﻇﺎﻬﺗﺎ ﰲ ورﻗﺔ إن ﺷﺎءت.‬
‫3. ﺗﺘﺒﺎدل ﻤﻟﻤﻮﻋﺘﺎن اﻟﻌﺮض واﻻﺳﺘﻤﺎع.‬

52. ‫3- ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﻣﻔﺘﻮﺣﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻮﺿﻮع )5 دﻗﺎﺋﻖ( )‪(Open Discussion‬‬
‫ﻋﺮض اﻷدﻟﺔ ﺑﻘﻮة ﺑﻐﺮض إﻗﻨﺎع ﻛﻞ ﻓﺮﻳﻖ ﻟﻶﺧﺮ.‬ ‫1.‬
‫ﻋﺮض ﺣﻘﺎﺋﻖ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻴﺔ ﰲ اﻟﺴﻴﺎق.‬ ‫2.‬
‫اﻻﺳﺘﻤﺎع ﺑﻮﻋﻲ ﳊﻘﻴﻘﺔ اﻷدﻟﺔ وﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ ﺳﻴﺎق اﻻﻋﺘﻤﺎد ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ.‬ ‫3.‬
‫ﻃﻠﺐ اﳊﻘﺎﺋﻖ ﻣﻦ ﻛﻞ ﻃﺮف.‬ ‫4.‬
‫ﻋﺮض أدﻟﺔ ﻣﻀﺎدة ﻟﻜﻞ ﻓﺮﻳﻖ.‬ ‫5.‬
‫ﺗﺬﻛﺮ: ﻗﻮاﻋﺪ اﳉﺪال اﳌﺘﺤﻀﺮ.‬ ‫6.‬

53. ‫4- ﺗﺒﺎدل اﻷدوار )3 دﻗﺎﺋﻖ( )‪(Perspective Reversal‬‬
‫اﻋﺮض أدﻟﺔ اﻟﻔﺮﻳﻖ اﻵﺧﺮ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻟﻮ ﻛﻨﺖ ﻣﻜﺎ�ﻢ.‬ ‫1.‬
‫ﻛﻦ ﻗﻮﻳﺎً ﰲ اﻟﻌﺮض وﻣﻘﻨﻌﺎً.‬ ‫2.‬
‫أﺻﻠﺢ ﻃﺮﻳﻘﺔ اﻟﻌﺮض إن ﺟﺪﻬﺗﺎ ﻏﲑ دﻗﻴﻘﺔ.‬ ‫3.‬
‫أﺿﻒ أدﻟﺔ ﺟﺪﻳﺪة أو ﺣﻘﺎﺋﻖ أﺧﺮى إن أردت.‬ ‫4.‬

54. ‫5- اﻟﺘﻮﺻﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻗﺮار )5 دﻗﺎﺋﻖ( )‪(Reaching a Decision‬‬
‫ح اﻟﺘﺤﻴﺰ ﻟﺮأي ﻣﻌﲔ.‬ ‫اﻃﺮ‬ ‫1.‬
‫ﳋﺺ وﲨﻊ أﻓﻀﻞ اﻷدﻟﺔ‬ ‫2.‬
‫ﺗﻮﺻﻞ إﱃ اﺗﻔﺎق ﻣﺪﻋﻮم ﲝﻘﺎﺋﻖ أو أﻗﻮى اﻷدﻟﺔ.‬ ‫3.‬
‫اﻛﺘﺐ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺮاً ﲟﺎ ﺣﺪث.‬ ‫4.‬
‫أﻋﺪ ﻛﻼ اﻟﻔﺮﻳﻘﲔ ﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎر ﻓﺮدي ﺣﻮل اﳌﻮﻗﻒ اﳌﺘﻔﻖ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ.‬ ‫5.‬

55. For Further learning … (Or Internet Research)
- Conflict Management
- Active/Empathic listening
- Teamwork Dynamics (FORM, STORM, NORM, PERFOM)
- Groupthink Phenomena in High Stress Cohesive Teams
- Leadership Skills (Level 5 Leadership, Harvard Business School)
- Knowledge Management
- Collaborative Learning Schemes (Pedagogy, Epistemology)
- Communities of Practice
- Knowledge Management