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Thinking

Chapter 10


             1
Thinking
 Concepts
 Solving Problems
 Making Decisions and Forming
  Judgments


                                 2
Thinking
Thinking, or cognition, refers to a process that
     involves knowing, understanding,
    remembering, and communicating.




                                                   3
Cognitive Psychologists
   Thinking involves a number of mental
activities, which are listed below. Cognitive
 psychologists study these in great detail.

         1.   Concepts
         2.   Problem solving
         3.   Decision making
         4.   Judgment formation


                                                4
Concepts
The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or
 people. There are a variety of chairs but their common
          features define the concept of a chair.




                                                        5
Category Hierarchies
We organize concepts into category hierarchies.




                                            Courtesy of Christine Brune
                                                                          6
Development of Concepts
 We form some concepts with definitions. For
example, a triangle has three sides. Mostly, we
 form concepts with mental images or typical
examples (prototypes). For example, a robin is
  a prototype of a bird, but a penguin is not.




                                                               J. Messerschmidt/ The Picture Cube
                                 Daniel J. Cox/ Getty Images



Triangle (definition)    Bird (mental image)                                                        7
Problem Solving
Problem solving strategies include:

     1.   Trial and Error
     2.   Algorithms
     3.   Heuristics
     4.   Insight




                                      8
Algorithms
Algorithms, which are very time consuming,
 exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a
    solution. Computers use algorithms.


  SPLOYOCHYG
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word
    using an algorithmic approach, we would face
                 907,200 possibilities.
                                                        9
Heuristics

Heuristics are simple,
  thinking strategies
that allow us to make
judgments and solve
 problems efficiently.




                             B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images
   Heuristics are less
 time consuming, but
more error-prone than
      algorithms.

                             10
Heuristics
Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple
principles to arrive at solutions to problems.



 SPLOYOCHYG
 S P L O HO C H G Y
 PSYCY OLO
      Put a Y at the end, and see if the word
              begins to make sense.
                                                 11
Insight


  Insight involves a
     sudden novel
    realization of a
solution to a problem.
Humans and animals
     have insight.


                            Grande using boxes to
                                obtain food         12
Insight
Brain imaging and EEG
   studies suggest that
when an insight strikes
(the “Aha” experience),
   it activates the right




                                    From Mark Jung-Beekman, Northwestern
                                    University and John Kounios, Drexel University
 temporal cortex (Jung-
Beeman & others, 2004).
  The time between not
  knowing the solution
and realizing it is about
        0.3 seconds.
                               13
Obstacles in Solving Problems
  Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for
   information that confirms a personal bias.



                   2–4–6
 Rule: Any ascending series of numbers. 1 – 2 – 3 would
comply. Wason’s students had difficulty figuring out the
     rule due to a confirmation bias (Wason, 1960).
                                                      14
Fixation
  Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a
    fresh perspective. This impedes problem
   solving. An example of fixation is functional
                    fixedness.




                                                        Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
                                                        From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by
   The Matchstick
Problem: How would
   you arrange six
matches to form four
equilateral triangles?
                                                   15
Using these materials, how would you mount the




                                                                                                                                        16
Candle-Mounting Problem




                                                                           From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by
                                                                           Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
                                    candle on a bulletin board?
17
The Matchstick Problem: Solution




                                   From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by
                                   Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Candle-Mounting Problem: Solution




                                18
Making Decision & Forming
            Judgments

Each day we make hundreds of judgments and
decisions based on our intuition, seldom using
            systematic reasoning.




                                             19
Using and Misusing Heuristics

    Two kinds of heuristics, representative
heuristics and availability heuristics, have been
    identified by cognitive psychologists.


                       of Louisville and the Tversky family
                       Courtesy of Greymeyer Award, University




                                                                                   of Louisville and Daniel Kahneman
                                                                                   Courtesy of Greymeyer Award, University
                                                                                                                             20
        Amos Tversky                                             Daniel Kahneman
Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things or objects in
terms of how well they seem to represent, or
       match, a particular prototype.



If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses
and likes poetry, what do you think hisdriver is far
  Probability that that person is a truck profession
  greater than an ivy league professor just because
would be?
 there are more truck drivers than such professors.

An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?
                                                       21
Availability Heuristic
Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray?
    Whatever increases the ease of retrieving
 information increases its perceived availability.


           How is retrieval facilitated?

1. How recently we have heard about the event.
2. How distinct it is.
3. How correct it is.
                                                22
Overconfidence
Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and
 the inclination to explain failures increase our
overconfidence. Overconfidence is a tendency to
  overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and
                    judgments.

In the stock market, both
 the seller and the buyer
 may be confident about
   their decisions on a
           stock.
                                                23
Exaggerated Fear
The opposite of having
   overconfidence is
having an exaggerated
 fear about what may
happen. Such fears may
    be unfounded.




                                     AP/ Wide World Photos
The 9/11 attacks led to a
decline in air travel due
         to fear.
                                24
The Effects of Framing
      Decisions and judgments may be
 significantly affected depending upon how
              an issue is framed.



Example: What is the best way to market
ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?



                                          25
The Belief Perseverance
           Phenomenon
Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to
 our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.


   If you see that a country is hostile, you are
likely to interpret their ambiguous actions as a
          sign of hostility (Jervis, 1985).



                                                  26
Perils & Powers of Intuition


 Intuition may be perilous if unchecked, but
may also be extremely efficient and adaptive.




                                                27

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Chapter 10 thinking

  • 2. Thinking  Concepts  Solving Problems  Making Decisions and Forming Judgments 2
  • 3. Thinking Thinking, or cognition, refers to a process that involves knowing, understanding, remembering, and communicating. 3
  • 4. Cognitive Psychologists Thinking involves a number of mental activities, which are listed below. Cognitive psychologists study these in great detail. 1. Concepts 2. Problem solving 3. Decision making 4. Judgment formation 4
  • 5. Concepts The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. There are a variety of chairs but their common features define the concept of a chair. 5
  • 6. Category Hierarchies We organize concepts into category hierarchies. Courtesy of Christine Brune 6
  • 7. Development of Concepts We form some concepts with definitions. For example, a triangle has three sides. Mostly, we form concepts with mental images or typical examples (prototypes). For example, a robin is a prototype of a bird, but a penguin is not. J. Messerschmidt/ The Picture Cube Daniel J. Cox/ Getty Images Triangle (definition) Bird (mental image) 7
  • 8. Problem Solving Problem solving strategies include: 1. Trial and Error 2. Algorithms 3. Heuristics 4. Insight 8
  • 9. Algorithms Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution. Computers use algorithms. SPLOYOCHYG If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face 907,200 possibilities. 9
  • 10. Heuristics Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms. 10
  • 11. Heuristics Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems. SPLOYOCHYG S P L O HO C H G Y PSYCY OLO Put a Y at the end, and see if the word begins to make sense. 11
  • 12. Insight Insight involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem. Humans and animals have insight. Grande using boxes to obtain food 12
  • 13. Insight Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when an insight strikes (the “Aha” experience), it activates the right From Mark Jung-Beekman, Northwestern University and John Kounios, Drexel University temporal cortex (Jung- Beeman & others, 2004). The time between not knowing the solution and realizing it is about 0.3 seconds. 13
  • 14. Obstacles in Solving Problems Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias. 2–4–6 Rule: Any ascending series of numbers. 1 – 2 – 3 would comply. Wason’s students had difficulty figuring out the rule due to a confirmation bias (Wason, 1960). 14
  • 15. Fixation Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes problem solving. An example of fixation is functional fixedness. Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved. From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by The Matchstick Problem: How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles? 15
  • 16. Using these materials, how would you mount the 16 Candle-Mounting Problem From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved. candle on a bulletin board?
  • 17. 17 The Matchstick Problem: Solution From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
  • 19. Making Decision & Forming Judgments Each day we make hundreds of judgments and decisions based on our intuition, seldom using systematic reasoning. 19
  • 20. Using and Misusing Heuristics Two kinds of heuristics, representative heuristics and availability heuristics, have been identified by cognitive psychologists. of Louisville and the Tversky family Courtesy of Greymeyer Award, University of Louisville and Daniel Kahneman Courtesy of Greymeyer Award, University 20 Amos Tversky Daniel Kahneman
  • 21. Representativeness Heuristic Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, a particular prototype. If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses and likes poetry, what do you think hisdriver is far Probability that that person is a truck profession greater than an ivy league professor just because would be? there are more truck drivers than such professors. An Ivy league professor or a truck driver? 21
  • 22. Availability Heuristic Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray? Whatever increases the ease of retrieving information increases its perceived availability. How is retrieval facilitated? 1. How recently we have heard about the event. 2. How distinct it is. 3. How correct it is. 22
  • 23. Overconfidence Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and the inclination to explain failures increase our overconfidence. Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. In the stock market, both the seller and the buyer may be confident about their decisions on a stock. 23
  • 24. Exaggerated Fear The opposite of having overconfidence is having an exaggerated fear about what may happen. Such fears may be unfounded. AP/ Wide World Photos The 9/11 attacks led to a decline in air travel due to fear. 24
  • 25. The Effects of Framing Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed. Example: What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean? 25
  • 26. The Belief Perseverance Phenomenon Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence. If you see that a country is hostile, you are likely to interpret their ambiguous actions as a sign of hostility (Jervis, 1985). 26
  • 27. Perils & Powers of Intuition Intuition may be perilous if unchecked, but may also be extremely efficient and adaptive. 27

Hinweis der Redaktion

  1. Preview Question 1: What are the functions of concepts?
  2. Preview Question 2: What strategies do we use to solve problems, and what obstacles hinder our problem solving?
  3. Preview Question 3: How do heuristics, overconfidence, and framing influence our decisions and judgments?
  4. Preview Question 4: How do our preexisting beliefs influence our decision making?