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How energy efficient really is
railway transportation?
Stefan Fassbinder
Deutsches Kupferinstitut
Am Bonneshof 5
D-40474 Düsseldorf
Tel.: +49 211 4796-323
Fax: +49 211 4796-310
sfassbinder@kupferinstitut.de
stf@eurocopper.org
www.kupferinstitut.de
www.leonardo-energy.org




 The German Copper Institute, DKI, is
 the central information and advisory
 service dealing with all uses of copper
 and copper alloys.
 We offer our services to:
    Commercial companies    We can be contacted by:
    The skilled trades       post
    Industry                 phone
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    Artists and craftsmen    internet
    Students                 online database, or
    Private individuals      personally




                                                       1
Electricity boosts mobility
Electric motors
• have their highest torque at standstill:
  No disengaging, no gearchange, no torque converter
  required,
• provide a considerable short-term overload capability:
  Higher acceleration than the power rating would let you
  suppose,
• do not have any no-load consumption during standstill,
  rolling or braking,
• offer the opportunity to feed back energy during braking!
  Motor = Generator,
• and their primary fuel is totally flexible (fossil, nuclear,
  hydro, wind – just mix as you like!).




So it is not a miracle
if railway companies prefer
electric traction!
                                                      Characteristic data of 16.7 Hz railways
         Electricity system of DB AG
                                                                    in D-A-CH
                               Installed  Energy
Type of power plant                                                                         DB AG      ÖBB       SBB
                               capacity production
Vapour                             42.2%    66.0%                   Employees                240242     42893     27822
Hydro                             11.0%     10.0%                   Passengers              1919Mio.   200Mio.   332Mio.
                                                     Railway grid




Rotating convertor                34.3%     14.6%                            total          33862km 11000km      3011km
Electronic convertor              11.9%      9.4%                           electrified     19300km    8200km    3011km
                                                                    share




Total                            3.2GW 11.0TWh/a                             of lines           57%       75%     100%
Sum of all electric vehicles    22.4GW (700%)                                of transport       85%               100%
                                                                             volume

                                                         56% of DB lines are
    … since the energy                               electrified. These 56% carry
“consumption” of an electric                               85% of all traffic.
locomotive can be negative!                                  However …




                                                                                                                           2
…what about the other 15%?




                                                                               e. g. the
                                                                               612 series?
• Engine power rating: 2*560 kW = 1120 kW
• Smart and convenient:
  Tilting technique, air conditioning
• Maximum permissible speed: 160 km/h
• Fuel consumption: 1.7 l/km (for one, not 100 km!)




What about diesel locomotives?
• On a series 232 diesel locomotive (6 axles, 120 t,
  2,200 kW, max. 120 km/h) at a constant speed of
  120 km/h a consumption of 3 l/km was measured.
• (for good resons railway companies reference the fuel consumptions to
  one kilometre, not to 100 kilometres!)
• There are no new diesel locomotives.
• There are old diesel locomotives with new engines.
•“Ludmilla” efficiency is then >40%.
  The engine                                                  “Taiga Drum”
• But what„s the use of this if the engine is idling over 90% of its operating
  time?
• And if a DB technician explains: “Diesel locomotives hamper the traffic
  when circulating on an electrified line!” …
• …and if a railway trade journal reports the electrification of a line no
  longer than 22 km had already cut the circulation time by 5 minutes?
„Elektrischer Betrieb bei der Deutschen Bahn im Jahre 2009“. „eb“ Elektrische Bahnen & Verkehrssysteme 1-2/2010, p.19




                                                                                                                        3
However, the 101 series electric loco
(4 axles, 84 t, 220 km/h) provides a
motor power rating of 6,600 kW!




Note: It„s electricity that wakes trains up!




The parameters responsible for
the energy demand are
(at ≈200 km/h):       of a car of a train                  factor
                                    (4…5 seats) (450 seats) 100
Mass                                     1.5 t     450 t     300
        Note:of staticare a means of ≈55% transportation! 0.6
Coefficient    Trains friction          mass     28…35%
Coefficient of rolling friction          ≈2%       <2‰!      0.1
Resulting: some good reasons railwaykN
Note: For    Rolling friction force     0.3 companies give rolling
                                                   9 kN       30
Power demand resulting from as per kW figures!
             friction coefficients this 15 mille 450 kW       30
as a share of power rating               15%         7%      0.5
Air friction force                      1.5 kN     30 kN      20
Power demand resulting from this 85 kW           1550 kW      18
as a share of power rating               85%        23%     0.27
Total power demand                     100 kW    2000 kW      20
as a share of power rating              100%       30%!      3.3




                                                                     4
Now what are the other
70% of power good for?
Compared to a car, a train has:
- A very great mass.
- Significantly less static friction
  (steel on steel rather than rubber on asphalt).
+ Significantly less rolling friction
  (steel on steel rather than rubber on asphalt).
+ Significantly less air friction (since the train
  travels in its own windshade!).




Worth noting:
The top speed

of a car is usually           of a railway vehicle
the highest                   is usually the
possible speed,               highest
limited by the                permissible
available engine              speed.
power.




                                                     5
With a great deal of good will
 66kW                                     6,6MW
we will now requirement car anda train
          Power let a car with IC

•55kW kW engine and (very tight) space for
  66   P (car)                           5,5MW




                                             P (IC train) 
•44kW
  4 passengers travel at                  4,4MW
•33kW km/h, P (car)
  200                                     3,3MW
                 P (IC train)
while a train with a drive power rating of
 22kW                                     2,2MW
• 6,600 kW offers plenty of space to
•11kW passengers (including toilets, a
  400                                     1,1MW

  bistro, …). At a travelling speed of 0,0MW
  0kW
                                      v 

• 200 km/h50km/h requires: 150km/h 200km/h
    0km/h
               this 100km/h




But a car accelerates faster?
100%
       v/vmax 




 90%
 80%
 70%                     Well, initially yes, but the
                           Acceleration process
 60%                   car and trainlot … 200 km/h)
                        train has a (0 of reserves!
 50%
 40%
 30%
 20%               v/vmax Car
 10%               v/vmax IC train
                              s 
  0%
    0km 1km 2km 3km 4km 5km 6km 7km 8km




                                                              6
Quiz question 1:
How far will an ICE2 express
train of the 402 series continue to roll
unbraked in a flat area when suddenly
the power fails at a speed of 230 km/h?
Answer 1:
The test was not carried out all through
to the end. After 32 km the train was still
rolling at 120 km/h!




Quiz question 2:
How fast will a railway carriage
become when you let it roll down a
decline of 5‰ (just 0.5%!)?
Answer 2:
Note: For some good reasons railway
companiesto technical documents by as
According give inclines and declines
per mille Bahn AG
Deutsche figures! it will (finally) reach
a speed of 44 m/s ≈ 160 km/h (after
1 hour of rolling)!
A street car would simply just stall and not roll at all!




                                                            7
Quiz question 3:
Why is it that in a train repair
hall which can be opened at both ends
it is not allowed to leave both gates
open at the same time?
Answer 3:
Because the wind might blow the
locomotoves out of the hall!




So let’s just accelerate a
200km/h
fully occupied street car
   v 




to 200 km/h, disengage
150km/h
and see what will
happen…
100km/h
Mass:                          Train rolls kg
                                  2000
                               Train rolls
                               Train brakes
                               Car rolling out
Rolling friction coefficient: Car rolling out
 50km/h
                                         2%
                               Car rolling out

Front surface area:                      2 m²
cx value:
  0km/h                                  0.37
                             2km s 
Engine power: 1km
       0km
                                    105 kW     3km




                                                     8
Hauling force and power
           IC fast train with DB's 101
300kN        series locomotive and                             6MW
                   9 carriages
250kN                                                          5MW
        Hauling force 




                                                     Power 
200kN                                                          4MW

150kN                                                          3MW
                          Required hauling force
                          Required power
100kN                                                          2MW

50kN                                                           1MW
        Speed 
 0kN                                                      0MW
   0km/h     50km/h            100km/h     150km/h   200km/h




Hauling force – 80% left?
           IC fast train with DB's 101
300kN        series locomotive and                             6MW
                   9 carriages
250kN                                                          5MW
        Hauling force 




                                                     Power 




200kN                                                          4MW

150kN                                                          3MW
                          Required hauling force
                          Available hauling force
100kN                                                          2MW
                          Required power
50kN                                                           1MW
        Speed 
 0kN                                                      0MW
   0km/h     50km/h            100km/h     150km/h   200km/h




                                                                     9
Power – 70% left?
           IC fast train with DB's 101
300kN        series locomotive and                     Power limit             6MW
                   9 carriages
250kN                                                                           5MW
                             Static friction limit 
        Hauling force 




                                                                      Power 
200kN                                                                           4MW

150kN                                                                           3MW
                                Required hauling force
                                Available hauling force
100kN                                                                           2MW
                                Required power
                                Available power
50kN                                                                            1MW
        Speed 
 0kN                                                                       0MW
   0km/h     50km/h                   100km/h           150km/h       200km/h




At 300 km/h, however …
300kN                                                                           8MW
                                      ICE3 high speed railcar
                                        of DB's 403 series                      7MW
250kN
                                           … the demand does                    6MW
        F 




200kN                                      increase rapidly                    5MW

150kN                                                                           4MW
                                                                      P 




                          Required hauling force
                                                                                3MW
100kN                     Available hauling force
                          Required power                                        2MW
50kN                      Available power
                                                                                1MW
                                                                  v 
 0kN                                                                            0MW
   0km/h                  100km/h           200km/h             300km/h




                                                                                      10
The ultimate train concept
330km/h    ICE3 high speed railcar                           0,75m/s²




                                                       a 
300km/h      of DB's 403 series
270km/h                                                      0,60m/s²
240km/h
210km/h                   16 out of 32 axles driven          0,45m/s²
180km/h
           v 



                          by a 500 kW motor each
150km/h                        provide optimal
                                                             0,30m/s²
120km/h                       acceleration and
 90km/h                       energy recovery
 60km/h                                                      0,15m/s²
                   Speed
 30km/h            Acceleration
                                             s 
  0km/h                                                    0,00m/s²
       0km        5km     10km        15km    20km     25km




The ultimate train concept
330km/h          ICE3 high speed railcar                     0,75m/s²
                                                       a 




300km/h            of DB's 403 series
270km/h                                                      0,60m/s²
240km/h
210km/h                   16 out of 32 axles driven          0,45m/s²
180km/h
           v 




                          by a 500 kW motor each
150km/h                        provide optimal
                                                             0,30m/s²
120km/h                       acceleration and
 90km/h                       energy recovery
 60km/h                                                      0,15m/s²
                   Speed
 30km/h            Acceleration
                                             t 
  0km/h                                                      0,00m/s²
          0s     60s    120s   180s    240s    300s   360s




                                                                        11
Also you have to accelerate the train to
the desired travelling speed of 300 km/h
(83.3 m/s) first in order to run that fast
With a 4% supplement for rotating masses and an efficiency
of 87%, measured at the pantograph, this makes about
520 kWh for one single acceleration from 0 to 300 km/h.
With the DB tariff of 9 c/kWh this costs approximately 47 €!
It would be pretty sad to get nothing of this back at all.
Counted with an efficiency of 87% again, you can retrieve
75% during brakage – if all goes well.
                                       2
       m        450 ,000 kg        m
Wkin     * v²               * 83.3         1.56 *10 9 Nm 1.56GJ   434 kWh
       2             2             s




Bad outlook for the diesel
Electric traction turns out to be far superior:
• Power density and dynamic behaviour are outstanding.
• 8% of all electricity consumed by locomotives in Germany
  has been used once before by another locomotive and fed
  back again into the supply system.
• Usually this works only with water (or e. g. copper!) but
  never ever with coal, gas and oil.
• The share will continue to grow, since by and large more
  and more old electric locos without feedback capability are
  being replaced with modern power electronic ones.
• But we will still have to wait for a long time to see a diesel
  engine coming around that, when braking, sucks up fumes
  and converts them back into fresh air and fuel.




                                                                            12
Electric power speeds us up!
• For 2009, DB„s department for Energy Cost Management
  gives an average circulation of 347,620 km for each of their
  145 locomotives of the 101 series.
• The average consumption is ≈17 kWh/km (including
  electricity the locomotive has fed into the train for heating
  the carriages and for ancillary supplies).
• This yields an electricity cost of half a million Euros per
  year.
• The purchase price of the 101 series is around 3 million
  Euros.
• So for the power consumption of a locomotive„s 30-year-
  long life you could buy in 5 complete locomotives!
• 8% of energy fed back saves 1.2 million Euros per loco
  during 30 years!




 Or let’s have a look at
 suburban transportation
 The regional train from Aachen to Dortmund
 travels about 160 km far, calling 22 times.
 Its top speed is 140 km/h.
 If it went all through non-stop, it would consume
 only 800 kWh for overcoming the friction.
 But accelerating 22 times costs 1600 kWh!
 So this is 2/3 of the overall energy consumption!
 Hence, in theory about 3/4 out of 2/3, say half of the
 energy, could be recovered, but unfortunately …




                                                                  13
Or let’s have a look at
suburban transportation
… according to DB Regio the real rate of recovery
is only 10% in this business unit!
And now what to do? What’s the deficiency?




Hence DB’s plans for the
coming decades are:
• Increase the share of inverter     10% → 20%
  locos from 47% (2009) to 100%
• Improve control infrastructure –   20% → 50%
  no more odour of hot brakes
• Replace all Loco-and-carriage      50% → 60%
  trains with railcars, since:
• Railcars are lighter and hence use less energy
• The dispersed drive expands the opportunities
  for energy recuperation




                                                    14
Now what„s up with
the 44% of lines
without a trolley wire?
• There is a diesel railcar standing at the railway station. There are 2
  engines mumbling under no-load conditions inside it – and are being
  cooled, while an oil heater fuelled with diesel fuel at the price of diesel
  fuel is heating the passenger cabin.
• The railcar starts. The engines raise their voices a little bit.
• Only above some 30 km/h … 60 km/h the full power can be transmitted
  to the rails: Now the engines hum a bit more vigorously – for about one
  minute. Then the top speed has been reached. About 30% of the
  engine rating suffice to sustain a constant speed of 160 km/h.
• But very soon we are approaching the next station. The railcar is kept
  rolling for several minutes, the engines disengage, mumbling calmly.
• Then the railcar brakes. The engines rev up – just to dissipate the
  heat from the hydraulic braking system via the engine radiators!
Is this a concept for the future? – Or rather a makeshift solution?




But wasn‘t there something else?
Oh, right: The 515 series!
• Accumulator-operated railcars
  have been in use since 1907!
• for 40 years, from 1955 to 1995, well over 220
  motor vehicles of the 515 series have been in use:
• Power rating 2*150 kW
• Maximum speed 100 km/h
• 10 t … 16 t of lead accumulators
• Capacity 352 kWh … 602 kWh
• Cruising range 300 km




                                                                                15
Mental experiment:
A modern re-issue
• Today„s Li ion accumulators provide 4 times the
  energy density of the old lead acid batteries, so:
• you can double the capacity while halving the
  mass.
• Doubling the capacity doubles the cruising range
  to about 600 km.
• halving the weight along with the use of modern
  inverter technique with generative brakage im-
  prove the performance (min. 140 km/h) and the
  comfort (e. g. air conditioning).




Comparing a hypothetical electric
battery railcar to a street car
                             Tesla    Electric
                           Roadster   railcar
Energy capacity             55 kWh   1100 kWh
Energy demand             200 Wh/km 2000 Wh/km
Energy demand per seat 100 Wh/km 10 Wh/km
cruising range              350 km    600 km
Battery mass                 0.45 t      9t
as share of the vehicle      36%        12%
Battery price              45.000 €  900.000 €
as share of conv. vehicle    50%        25%




                                                       16
How much really is the
electricity from the battery?
Battery price:                   900.000 €
Life time:                          3000 cycles
Energy capacity:                    1100 kWh
So in effect the power from the battery costs:
Electricity taken from trolley wire  90 €/MWh
Charge cycle / conversion losses +10 €/MWh
Night tariff rebate                 -10 €/MWh
Wear of the accumulator battery +270 €/MWh
Electricity cost from the battery   360 €/MWh




Comparison to the existing
series 612 diesel railcar
                          Diesel railcar    Batt. railcar
Primary energy demand 20 kWh/km              <6 kWh/km
Secondary energy demand 17 kWh/km             2 kWh/km
                               (1.7 l/km)
Net energy price                 1.03 €/l   0.09 €/kWh
Energy price from the battery – – –         0.36 €/kWh
Net energy cost               1.80 €/km       0.18 €/km
Energy cost incl. battery         – – –       0.72 €/km
At 250,000 km/a             450,000 €/a     180,000 €/a
During a 30 years„ life    13,500,000 €     5,400,000 €




                                                            17
Alternative 1: Accumulator
railcar with pantograph
Local trains often leave
the city centres on
electrified lines and turn
off onto the seconday
lines only a bit later on.
Here the vehicles could
• be charged up during ride
• in part be driven as conventional electric railcars
   with pantograph (»pop-up hybrid«)
• and thus require only a fraction of the (expensive)
   battery capacity.




Alternative 2:
Hybrid diesel railcars
Do not confuse with the principle of the diesel-
electric locomotive! Since this is an electric locomotive lugging around
its own power plant
• With the hybrid railcar, however, the diesel engine has only some 10%
  of the electric power (e. g. a 66 kW car engine instead of 2*315 kW
  railway engines).
• For the diesel engine is always running at the optimal point of operation
  (rated speed and power) instead of idling ≈90% of its time.
• Also the generator rating is only 10% that of the electrical traction
  power.
• The battery provides 90% or bears 110%, respectively, of the electrical
  traction power during acceleration and brakage, respectively.
• Continuous heat generation. Combined heat and power generation
  replaces the oil heater.
• Facilitates combination with alternative 1.




                                                                              18
Hybrid diesel railcars – also
for long-distance fast trains?
Just take a trip from Berlin to Copenhagen!
There they are using up the unfortunate series 605 now.
• These railcars are equipped with diesel-electric drives, so
  these already avail of electric drive motors and inverters.
• These trains arose on the platform of the 415 series 5-
  carriage electric railcar!
• They had been withdrawn from service for several years.
• They were offered for sale, but nobody wanted them.
• One of the reasons given for the latter two points are high
  fuel costs.
So why not convert these trains first?




Series 605 – ICE without pantograph
Just consider:
• Here the train does not run very fast and rarely stops.
• Still the fuel consumption lies around 3 l/km!
• This costs around 1800 € per single trip
• For this alone 7 full-charge or 45 low-cost ticket passengers
  will have to be sitting on the total of 195 seats
• Whereas the major share of the easement is electrified!
• And for one hour the train is not travelling at all but is
  standing on a ship.
So why not
• remove 3 of the 4 diesel engines and generators,
• replace them with accumulator batteries,
• possibly add a pantograph and a transformer
• but in any case reduce the fuel consumption by 1 l/km
• and save about 600 € of fuel cost on one trip?




                                                                  19
Summary and conclusions
• Electric railway drives clearly outperform diesel
  engines.
• At the same time electric railway drives are way more energy efficient
  than diesel traction is.
• SBB operate 100% electrically – nothing left to do.
• E. g. DSB are 27% electrified – need for action!
• DB AG operate 85% electrically – this is fine so far.
• For the remaining 15% a re-introduction of battery operated railcars
  based on modern lithium ion cells should be considered. 40 years of
  good experinece even with lead acid accumulators support this idea.
• The economic viability of electric cars lies about 10 times further
  away from reality than that of the battery operated railway vehicle!
  The German Department of Technology and the EU Commission
  should urgently take this into consideration with their energy efficiency
  support programmes.




                                                                              20

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Energy efficient-railway-transportation

  • 1. How energy efficient really is railway transportation? Stefan Fassbinder Deutsches Kupferinstitut Am Bonneshof 5 D-40474 Düsseldorf Tel.: +49 211 4796-323 Fax: +49 211 4796-310 sfassbinder@kupferinstitut.de stf@eurocopper.org www.kupferinstitut.de www.leonardo-energy.org The German Copper Institute, DKI, is the central information and advisory service dealing with all uses of copper and copper alloys. We offer our services to:  Commercial companies We can be contacted by:  The skilled trades  post  Industry  phone  R & D institutes  fax  Universities  e-mail  Artists and craftsmen  internet  Students  online database, or  Private individuals  personally 1
  • 2. Electricity boosts mobility Electric motors • have their highest torque at standstill: No disengaging, no gearchange, no torque converter required, • provide a considerable short-term overload capability: Higher acceleration than the power rating would let you suppose, • do not have any no-load consumption during standstill, rolling or braking, • offer the opportunity to feed back energy during braking! Motor = Generator, • and their primary fuel is totally flexible (fossil, nuclear, hydro, wind – just mix as you like!). So it is not a miracle if railway companies prefer electric traction! Characteristic data of 16.7 Hz railways Electricity system of DB AG in D-A-CH Installed Energy Type of power plant DB AG ÖBB SBB capacity production Vapour 42.2% 66.0% Employees 240242 42893 27822 Hydro 11.0% 10.0% Passengers 1919Mio. 200Mio. 332Mio. Railway grid Rotating convertor 34.3% 14.6% total 33862km 11000km 3011km Electronic convertor 11.9% 9.4% electrified 19300km 8200km 3011km share Total 3.2GW 11.0TWh/a of lines 57% 75% 100% Sum of all electric vehicles 22.4GW (700%) of transport 85% 100% volume 56% of DB lines are … since the energy electrified. These 56% carry “consumption” of an electric 85% of all traffic. locomotive can be negative! However … 2
  • 3. …what about the other 15%? e. g. the 612 series? • Engine power rating: 2*560 kW = 1120 kW • Smart and convenient: Tilting technique, air conditioning • Maximum permissible speed: 160 km/h • Fuel consumption: 1.7 l/km (for one, not 100 km!) What about diesel locomotives? • On a series 232 diesel locomotive (6 axles, 120 t, 2,200 kW, max. 120 km/h) at a constant speed of 120 km/h a consumption of 3 l/km was measured. • (for good resons railway companies reference the fuel consumptions to one kilometre, not to 100 kilometres!) • There are no new diesel locomotives. • There are old diesel locomotives with new engines. •“Ludmilla” efficiency is then >40%. The engine “Taiga Drum” • But what„s the use of this if the engine is idling over 90% of its operating time? • And if a DB technician explains: “Diesel locomotives hamper the traffic when circulating on an electrified line!” … • …and if a railway trade journal reports the electrification of a line no longer than 22 km had already cut the circulation time by 5 minutes? „Elektrischer Betrieb bei der Deutschen Bahn im Jahre 2009“. „eb“ Elektrische Bahnen & Verkehrssysteme 1-2/2010, p.19 3
  • 4. However, the 101 series electric loco (4 axles, 84 t, 220 km/h) provides a motor power rating of 6,600 kW! Note: It„s electricity that wakes trains up! The parameters responsible for the energy demand are (at ≈200 km/h): of a car of a train factor (4…5 seats) (450 seats) 100 Mass 1.5 t 450 t 300 Note:of staticare a means of ≈55% transportation! 0.6 Coefficient Trains friction mass 28…35% Coefficient of rolling friction ≈2% <2‰! 0.1 Resulting: some good reasons railwaykN Note: For Rolling friction force 0.3 companies give rolling 9 kN 30 Power demand resulting from as per kW figures! friction coefficients this 15 mille 450 kW 30 as a share of power rating 15% 7% 0.5 Air friction force 1.5 kN 30 kN 20 Power demand resulting from this 85 kW 1550 kW 18 as a share of power rating 85% 23% 0.27 Total power demand 100 kW 2000 kW 20 as a share of power rating 100% 30%! 3.3 4
  • 5. Now what are the other 70% of power good for? Compared to a car, a train has: - A very great mass. - Significantly less static friction (steel on steel rather than rubber on asphalt). + Significantly less rolling friction (steel on steel rather than rubber on asphalt). + Significantly less air friction (since the train travels in its own windshade!). Worth noting: The top speed of a car is usually of a railway vehicle the highest is usually the possible speed, highest limited by the permissible available engine speed. power. 5
  • 6. With a great deal of good will 66kW 6,6MW we will now requirement car anda train Power let a car with IC •55kW kW engine and (very tight) space for 66 P (car)  5,5MW P (IC train)  •44kW 4 passengers travel at 4,4MW •33kW km/h, P (car) 200 3,3MW P (IC train) while a train with a drive power rating of 22kW 2,2MW • 6,600 kW offers plenty of space to •11kW passengers (including toilets, a 400 1,1MW bistro, …). At a travelling speed of 0,0MW 0kW v  • 200 km/h50km/h requires: 150km/h 200km/h 0km/h this 100km/h But a car accelerates faster? 100% v/vmax  90% 80% 70% Well, initially yes, but the Acceleration process 60% car and trainlot … 200 km/h) train has a (0 of reserves! 50% 40% 30% 20% v/vmax Car 10% v/vmax IC train s  0% 0km 1km 2km 3km 4km 5km 6km 7km 8km 6
  • 7. Quiz question 1: How far will an ICE2 express train of the 402 series continue to roll unbraked in a flat area when suddenly the power fails at a speed of 230 km/h? Answer 1: The test was not carried out all through to the end. After 32 km the train was still rolling at 120 km/h! Quiz question 2: How fast will a railway carriage become when you let it roll down a decline of 5‰ (just 0.5%!)? Answer 2: Note: For some good reasons railway companiesto technical documents by as According give inclines and declines per mille Bahn AG Deutsche figures! it will (finally) reach a speed of 44 m/s ≈ 160 km/h (after 1 hour of rolling)! A street car would simply just stall and not roll at all! 7
  • 8. Quiz question 3: Why is it that in a train repair hall which can be opened at both ends it is not allowed to leave both gates open at the same time? Answer 3: Because the wind might blow the locomotoves out of the hall! So let’s just accelerate a 200km/h fully occupied street car v  to 200 km/h, disengage 150km/h and see what will happen… 100km/h Mass: Train rolls kg 2000 Train rolls Train brakes Car rolling out Rolling friction coefficient: Car rolling out 50km/h 2% Car rolling out Front surface area: 2 m² cx value: 0km/h 0.37 2km s  Engine power: 1km 0km 105 kW 3km 8
  • 9. Hauling force and power IC fast train with DB's 101 300kN series locomotive and 6MW 9 carriages 250kN 5MW Hauling force  Power  200kN 4MW 150kN 3MW Required hauling force Required power 100kN 2MW 50kN 1MW Speed  0kN 0MW 0km/h 50km/h 100km/h 150km/h 200km/h Hauling force – 80% left? IC fast train with DB's 101 300kN series locomotive and 6MW 9 carriages 250kN 5MW Hauling force  Power  200kN 4MW 150kN 3MW Required hauling force Available hauling force 100kN 2MW Required power 50kN 1MW Speed  0kN 0MW 0km/h 50km/h 100km/h 150km/h 200km/h 9
  • 10. Power – 70% left? IC fast train with DB's 101 300kN series locomotive and Power limit 6MW 9 carriages 250kN 5MW Static friction limit  Hauling force  Power  200kN 4MW 150kN 3MW Required hauling force Available hauling force 100kN 2MW Required power Available power 50kN 1MW Speed  0kN 0MW 0km/h 50km/h 100km/h 150km/h 200km/h At 300 km/h, however … 300kN 8MW ICE3 high speed railcar of DB's 403 series 7MW 250kN … the demand does 6MW F  200kN increase rapidly  5MW 150kN 4MW P  Required hauling force 3MW 100kN Available hauling force Required power 2MW 50kN Available power 1MW v  0kN 0MW 0km/h 100km/h 200km/h 300km/h 10
  • 11. The ultimate train concept 330km/h ICE3 high speed railcar 0,75m/s² a  300km/h of DB's 403 series 270km/h 0,60m/s² 240km/h 210km/h 16 out of 32 axles driven 0,45m/s² 180km/h v  by a 500 kW motor each 150km/h provide optimal 0,30m/s² 120km/h acceleration and 90km/h energy recovery 60km/h 0,15m/s² Speed 30km/h Acceleration s  0km/h 0,00m/s² 0km 5km 10km 15km 20km 25km The ultimate train concept 330km/h ICE3 high speed railcar 0,75m/s² a  300km/h of DB's 403 series 270km/h 0,60m/s² 240km/h 210km/h 16 out of 32 axles driven 0,45m/s² 180km/h v  by a 500 kW motor each 150km/h provide optimal 0,30m/s² 120km/h acceleration and 90km/h energy recovery 60km/h 0,15m/s² Speed 30km/h Acceleration t  0km/h 0,00m/s² 0s 60s 120s 180s 240s 300s 360s 11
  • 12. Also you have to accelerate the train to the desired travelling speed of 300 km/h (83.3 m/s) first in order to run that fast With a 4% supplement for rotating masses and an efficiency of 87%, measured at the pantograph, this makes about 520 kWh for one single acceleration from 0 to 300 km/h. With the DB tariff of 9 c/kWh this costs approximately 47 €! It would be pretty sad to get nothing of this back at all. Counted with an efficiency of 87% again, you can retrieve 75% during brakage – if all goes well. 2 m 450 ,000 kg m Wkin * v² * 83.3 1.56 *10 9 Nm 1.56GJ 434 kWh 2 2 s Bad outlook for the diesel Electric traction turns out to be far superior: • Power density and dynamic behaviour are outstanding. • 8% of all electricity consumed by locomotives in Germany has been used once before by another locomotive and fed back again into the supply system. • Usually this works only with water (or e. g. copper!) but never ever with coal, gas and oil. • The share will continue to grow, since by and large more and more old electric locos without feedback capability are being replaced with modern power electronic ones. • But we will still have to wait for a long time to see a diesel engine coming around that, when braking, sucks up fumes and converts them back into fresh air and fuel. 12
  • 13. Electric power speeds us up! • For 2009, DB„s department for Energy Cost Management gives an average circulation of 347,620 km for each of their 145 locomotives of the 101 series. • The average consumption is ≈17 kWh/km (including electricity the locomotive has fed into the train for heating the carriages and for ancillary supplies). • This yields an electricity cost of half a million Euros per year. • The purchase price of the 101 series is around 3 million Euros. • So for the power consumption of a locomotive„s 30-year- long life you could buy in 5 complete locomotives! • 8% of energy fed back saves 1.2 million Euros per loco during 30 years! Or let’s have a look at suburban transportation The regional train from Aachen to Dortmund travels about 160 km far, calling 22 times. Its top speed is 140 km/h. If it went all through non-stop, it would consume only 800 kWh for overcoming the friction. But accelerating 22 times costs 1600 kWh! So this is 2/3 of the overall energy consumption! Hence, in theory about 3/4 out of 2/3, say half of the energy, could be recovered, but unfortunately … 13
  • 14. Or let’s have a look at suburban transportation … according to DB Regio the real rate of recovery is only 10% in this business unit! And now what to do? What’s the deficiency? Hence DB’s plans for the coming decades are: • Increase the share of inverter 10% → 20% locos from 47% (2009) to 100% • Improve control infrastructure – 20% → 50% no more odour of hot brakes • Replace all Loco-and-carriage 50% → 60% trains with railcars, since: • Railcars are lighter and hence use less energy • The dispersed drive expands the opportunities for energy recuperation 14
  • 15. Now what„s up with the 44% of lines without a trolley wire? • There is a diesel railcar standing at the railway station. There are 2 engines mumbling under no-load conditions inside it – and are being cooled, while an oil heater fuelled with diesel fuel at the price of diesel fuel is heating the passenger cabin. • The railcar starts. The engines raise their voices a little bit. • Only above some 30 km/h … 60 km/h the full power can be transmitted to the rails: Now the engines hum a bit more vigorously – for about one minute. Then the top speed has been reached. About 30% of the engine rating suffice to sustain a constant speed of 160 km/h. • But very soon we are approaching the next station. The railcar is kept rolling for several minutes, the engines disengage, mumbling calmly. • Then the railcar brakes. The engines rev up – just to dissipate the heat from the hydraulic braking system via the engine radiators! Is this a concept for the future? – Or rather a makeshift solution? But wasn‘t there something else? Oh, right: The 515 series! • Accumulator-operated railcars have been in use since 1907! • for 40 years, from 1955 to 1995, well over 220 motor vehicles of the 515 series have been in use: • Power rating 2*150 kW • Maximum speed 100 km/h • 10 t … 16 t of lead accumulators • Capacity 352 kWh … 602 kWh • Cruising range 300 km 15
  • 16. Mental experiment: A modern re-issue • Today„s Li ion accumulators provide 4 times the energy density of the old lead acid batteries, so: • you can double the capacity while halving the mass. • Doubling the capacity doubles the cruising range to about 600 km. • halving the weight along with the use of modern inverter technique with generative brakage im- prove the performance (min. 140 km/h) and the comfort (e. g. air conditioning). Comparing a hypothetical electric battery railcar to a street car Tesla Electric Roadster railcar Energy capacity 55 kWh 1100 kWh Energy demand 200 Wh/km 2000 Wh/km Energy demand per seat 100 Wh/km 10 Wh/km cruising range 350 km 600 km Battery mass 0.45 t 9t as share of the vehicle 36% 12% Battery price 45.000 € 900.000 € as share of conv. vehicle 50% 25% 16
  • 17. How much really is the electricity from the battery? Battery price: 900.000 € Life time: 3000 cycles Energy capacity: 1100 kWh So in effect the power from the battery costs: Electricity taken from trolley wire 90 €/MWh Charge cycle / conversion losses +10 €/MWh Night tariff rebate -10 €/MWh Wear of the accumulator battery +270 €/MWh Electricity cost from the battery 360 €/MWh Comparison to the existing series 612 diesel railcar Diesel railcar Batt. railcar Primary energy demand 20 kWh/km <6 kWh/km Secondary energy demand 17 kWh/km 2 kWh/km (1.7 l/km) Net energy price 1.03 €/l 0.09 €/kWh Energy price from the battery – – – 0.36 €/kWh Net energy cost 1.80 €/km 0.18 €/km Energy cost incl. battery – – – 0.72 €/km At 250,000 km/a 450,000 €/a 180,000 €/a During a 30 years„ life 13,500,000 € 5,400,000 € 17
  • 18. Alternative 1: Accumulator railcar with pantograph Local trains often leave the city centres on electrified lines and turn off onto the seconday lines only a bit later on. Here the vehicles could • be charged up during ride • in part be driven as conventional electric railcars with pantograph (»pop-up hybrid«) • and thus require only a fraction of the (expensive) battery capacity. Alternative 2: Hybrid diesel railcars Do not confuse with the principle of the diesel- electric locomotive! Since this is an electric locomotive lugging around its own power plant • With the hybrid railcar, however, the diesel engine has only some 10% of the electric power (e. g. a 66 kW car engine instead of 2*315 kW railway engines). • For the diesel engine is always running at the optimal point of operation (rated speed and power) instead of idling ≈90% of its time. • Also the generator rating is only 10% that of the electrical traction power. • The battery provides 90% or bears 110%, respectively, of the electrical traction power during acceleration and brakage, respectively. • Continuous heat generation. Combined heat and power generation replaces the oil heater. • Facilitates combination with alternative 1. 18
  • 19. Hybrid diesel railcars – also for long-distance fast trains? Just take a trip from Berlin to Copenhagen! There they are using up the unfortunate series 605 now. • These railcars are equipped with diesel-electric drives, so these already avail of electric drive motors and inverters. • These trains arose on the platform of the 415 series 5- carriage electric railcar! • They had been withdrawn from service for several years. • They were offered for sale, but nobody wanted them. • One of the reasons given for the latter two points are high fuel costs. So why not convert these trains first? Series 605 – ICE without pantograph Just consider: • Here the train does not run very fast and rarely stops. • Still the fuel consumption lies around 3 l/km! • This costs around 1800 € per single trip • For this alone 7 full-charge or 45 low-cost ticket passengers will have to be sitting on the total of 195 seats • Whereas the major share of the easement is electrified! • And for one hour the train is not travelling at all but is standing on a ship. So why not • remove 3 of the 4 diesel engines and generators, • replace them with accumulator batteries, • possibly add a pantograph and a transformer • but in any case reduce the fuel consumption by 1 l/km • and save about 600 € of fuel cost on one trip? 19
  • 20. Summary and conclusions • Electric railway drives clearly outperform diesel engines. • At the same time electric railway drives are way more energy efficient than diesel traction is. • SBB operate 100% electrically – nothing left to do. • E. g. DSB are 27% electrified – need for action! • DB AG operate 85% electrically – this is fine so far. • For the remaining 15% a re-introduction of battery operated railcars based on modern lithium ion cells should be considered. 40 years of good experinece even with lead acid accumulators support this idea. • The economic viability of electric cars lies about 10 times further away from reality than that of the battery operated railway vehicle! The German Department of Technology and the EU Commission should urgently take this into consideration with their energy efficiency support programmes. 20