A summary from a review article about "Cross-Cultural Training：
Best Practices, Guidelines, and Research Needs" by Littrell & Sallas. Expatriate Management, International Assignment, Culture Shock, Working and Living abroad

1. Cross-­Cultural
Awareness
Training
Best Practices, Guidelines, and Research Needs
Prof. Dr. Hora Tjitra & Liu Jun, Zhejiang University
Hangzhou, March 2011

2. Data from multinational corporations (MNCs):
 10% to 50% of expatriates returning early from
their assignments.(Eschbach et al., 2001)
 Expatriates’ difficulties are costly for MNCs, rangi-ng
from $250,000 to $1 million. (Eschbach et al., 2001;
Mervosh & McCleniahan, 1997)
 The percentage of companies offering CCT incre-
ased from 30% to 60% within 10 years. (Black &
Mendenhall, 1990; R. Bennett et al.,2000)

3. Data from multinational corporations (MNCs):
 10% to 50% of expatriates returning early from
their assignments.(Eschbach et al., 2001)
 Expatriates’ difficulties are costly for MNCs, rangi-ng
from $250,000 to $1 million. (Eschbach et al., 2001;
Mervosh & McCleniahan, 1997)
 The percentage of companies offering CCT incre-
ased from 30% to 60% within 10 years. (Black &
Mendenhall, 1990; R. Bennett et al.,2000)
Have your company faced the same situations as above?
Or have you met any difficulties as an expatriate?

4. Prof. Dr. Hora Tjitra - Cross-cultural and Business Psychology
14
years
in
Germany
7
years
in
China
Born
and
grew
up
in
Indonesia
Cross-­‐Cultural
Awareness
Training
3

5. Prof. Dr. Hora Tjitra - Cross-cultural and Business Psychology
14
years
in
Germany
7
years
in
China
Dipl.-Psych., Technical University of Braunschweig
Organizational Psychology and Human Resource Management
Born
and
grew
up
in
Indonesia
Dr. Phil., University of Regensburg
Intercultural Psychology and Strategic Management
Executive Education, INSEAD
HR Management in Asia
Cross-­‐Cultural
Awareness
Training
3

6. The increasing demand for CCT in organizations
CCT

7. The increasing demand for CCT in organizations
Expatriates’ failure
adjustment and
organizational financial CCT
loss

8. The increasing demand for CCT in organizations
Expatriates’ failure
adjustment and Increasing diversity of
organizational financial CCT workplace
loss

9. The increasing demand for CCT in organizations
Lost opportunities and damaged
relations
Delayed productivity
Expatriates’ failure
adjustment and Increasing diversity of
organizational financial CCT workplace
loss
Expatriate’s early return
from the assignment
Many expatriates leave their
organization within one year after
returning.

10. The increasing demand for CCT in organizations
Lost opportunities and damaged Use of multicultural teams
relations
Increased organizational
Delayed productivity diversity
Expatriates’ failure
adjustment and Increasing diversity of
organizational financial CCT workplace
loss
Expatriate’s early return Internationalization of the
from the assignment economy
Many expatriates leave their Culture’s role from corner
organization within one year after shop to world conflict
returning.

11. Definition and Purpose of CCT
Cross-Cultural
Training

12. Definition and Purpose of CCT
Cross-Cultural
Training
An educative process
focused on promoting
intercultural learning
through the acquisition
of behavioral, cognitive,
and affective
competencies required
for effective interactions
across diverse cultures.
(Landis & Brislin, 1996;
Morris & Robie, 2001).

13. Definition and Purpose of CCT
Cross-Cultural
Training
An educative process
focused on promoting
intercultural learning
through the acquisition
of behavioral, cognitive,
and affective
competencies required
D me itiv ies
ev ta e
for effective interactions
el -
co rat
across diverse cultures.
op
st
gn eg
(Landis & Brislin, 1996;
Morris & Robie, 2001).

14. Definition and Purpose of CCT
Cross-Cultural
Training
An educative process
focused on promoting
intercultural learning
through the acquisition -
Develop self
of behavioral, cognitive,
maintenance
and affective skills
competencies required
D me itiv ies
ev ta e
for effective interactions
el -
co rat
across diverse cultures.
op
st
gn eg
(Landis & Brislin, 1996;
Morris & Robie, 2001).

15. Definition and Purpose of CCT
al
elop
son
s
rper
Cross-Cultural
Dev
skill
Training
inte
An educative process
focused on promoting
intercultural learning
through the acquisition -
Develop self
of behavioral, cognitive,
maintenance
and affective skills
competencies required
D me itiv ies
ev ta e
for effective interactions
el -
co rat
across diverse cultures.
op
st
gn eg
(Landis & Brislin, 1996;
Morris & Robie, 2001).

16. Definition and Purpose of CCT
al
elop
son
s
rper
Cross-Cultural
Dev
skill
Training
inte
An educative process Improve an
focused on promoting expatriate’s
intercultural learning probability of
through the acquisition -
Develop self
success on
of behavioral, cognitive, the foreign
maintenance
and affective assignment
skills
competencies required
D me itiv ies
ev ta e
for effective interactions
el -
co rat
across diverse cultures.
op
st
gn eg
(Landis & Brislin, 1996;
Morris & Robie, 2001).

17. Components of typical CCT programs

18. Components of typical CCT programs
Attribution training

19. Components of typical CCT programs
Culture awareness
training

20. Components of typical CCT programs
Cognitive-behavior
modification training

21. Components of typical CCT programs
Interaction training

22. Components of typical CCT programs
Language training

23. Components of typical CCT programs
Didactic training

24. Components of typical CCT programs
Experimental training

25. Components of typical CCT programs

26. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates

27. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates
CCL

28. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates
Work adjustment and general
adjustment to the culture
CCL

29. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates
Work adjustment and general
adjustment to the culture
Cognitive skill
CCL development

30. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates
Work adjustment and general
adjustment to the culture
Cognitive skill
CCL development
Self-confidence and overall
feelings of wellbeing

31. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates
Work adjustment and general
adjustment to the culture Increased
performance
Cognitive skill
CCL development
Self-confidence and overall
feelings of wellbeing

32. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates
Work adjustment and general
adjustment to the culture Increased
performance
Cognitive skill
CCL development Decreased early
return rates
Self-confidence and overall
feelings of wellbeing

33. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates
Work adjustment and general
adjustment to the culture Increased
performance
Cognitive skill
CCL development Decreased early
Success
return rates
Self-confidence and overall foreign
feelings of wellbeing
assignment!

34. The current CCT “Best Practices”
Design
Delivery
Evaluation

35. The current CCT “Best Practices”
Design
Delivery
Evaluation

36. The current CCT “Best Practices”
Design
Delivery
Evaluation

37. The current CCT “Best Practices”
Design
Delivery
Evaluation

38. What Are Organizations Not Doing
that They Should Be Doing --- Guideline (A) : Design
Guideline 1: CCT Should Be Customized to Match the Expatriate’s Needs
Guideline 2: CCT Should Not Stand Alone
Guideline 3: Training Rigor Should Be Tailored to the Cultural Toughness
of the Destination Country
Guideline 4: MNCs Should Develop a Global Mindset
Guideline 5: Organizations Must Use a Skill-Based Approach When
Designing CCT
Guideline 6: MNCs Should Apply and Use Strategies Based on the Science
Designing CCT Programs
Guideline 7: Scenario-Based Training Should Be Implemented

39. Guideline (B) : Delivery
Guideline 8: Training Delivery Should Correspond to the Dynamic
Adjustment Process
Guideline 9: The Difficulties Surrounding Repatriation Should Be Addressed
Guideline 10: Multiple Media Strategies Should Be Used to Deliver CCT

40. Guideline (C) : Evaluation
Guideline 11: Organizations Must Establish Success Criteria for CCT
Programs
Guideline 12: Organizations Must Evaluate Whether the Learning from
CCT has Transferred to the Job
Guideline 13: Organizations Must Assess Whether the Investment in CCT
Yields Positive Organizational Outcomes

41. Current and Further Research of CCT
Current Status Implications for Future
✓ There is a surge in the amount Research
of research devoted to cross-
cultural training within these years.
➡ Multicultural Team Training
✓ However:
➡ Lack of synthesis in the area of ➡ Adaptability
CCT research.
➡ Recommendations are often limited ➡ Culture and Personality:
because of addressing only one individual differences
facet of CCT.
➡ Empirical researches are not
➡ abundant.

42. International Project References in the Research Areas of
Culture Diversity, Talent Development, and Strategic Change
• Building Global Competence for Asian Leaders
• Applying Social Medias (Web 2.0) in Learning & Development.
• International Employability: Development of Intercultural 14
years
in
Germany
Competence of German and Chinese Young Professionals.
• Cross-Cultural Learning Behavior:
Effectiveness of the Western Technology Transfer and Learning
Approaches in China.
• Comparative Studies of Chinese-Indonesian Intercultural 8
years
in
China
Competence and Sensitivity.
• Dynamic Decision Making in Chinese and Multinational Teams.
• Intercultural Perspectives of International Post-Merger
Integration in Europe.
Born
and
grew
up
• Intercultural Synergy in Professional Team. in
Indonesia
• Complex Problem Solving in Small Groups.
• ...
Cross-­‐Cultural
Awareness
Training
13

43. Thank
You
Contact us via …
Mail: hora_t@mac.com
Follow: twitter@htjitra
Website: http://horatjitra.com
Based on: LISA N. LITTRELL, EDUARDO SALAS:
A Review of Cross-Cultural Training: Best Practices, Guidelines, and Research Needs. Zhejiang
University,
Hangzhou
(China)
Human Resource Development Review, 4(3), 2005. p305-334