Post-operative apnoea fortunately rare can catch the anaesthetist off guard. A through knowledge is needed to make a quick differential diagnosis to correct the problem leading to prolonged apnoea
6. Laryngospasm
Direct stimulation of cords or epiglottis by
secretions/blood/FB/OP airway, LMA or
following extubation
May be partial or complete
100% O2, aspirate secretions, IPPV to ‘break’
spasm. Caution inflating stomach
If not improving consider deepening,
Suxamethonium +/- reintubation
Rarely post thyroid surgery: recurrent laryngeal
nerve palsy cord palsy obstruction
7. Bronchospasm
Irritable airways in smokers
Intrinsic asthma
Anaphylaxis
Effect of drug directly on bronchial muscle or
via histamine release (thiopentone, morphine,
mivacurium, atracurium)
Mx: O2 and bronchodilators, aminophylline,
adrenaline.
9. Causes
Intracranial pathology (stroke, tumour, bleed)
Hypothermia
Hypocapnia (CSF lags Serum), severe
hypercapnia
All induction and maintenance drugs (except
ketamine) depress resp. drive. TIVA.
Opiates...
10. Opiates
Reduced vent. drive is obvious if RR or VT is low.
Can be subtle if moderate hypercapnia is undetected
- causes hypertension and tachycardia, which may
be mistaken for signs of pain and more opiates given
Elderly and children are particularly sensitive
Beware high spinals or SA epidurals
Naloxone as specific antidote. 400mcg in 1ml, dilute
to 10ml and give in 40mcg boluses. T1/2 20-30mins
(infusion 800mcg in 500ml saline over 6 hours or IM)
11. Benzodiazepines
Can be reversed with flumazenil
iv increments of 0.1mg to a maximum adult
dose of 1mg.
However, Flumazenil is expensive, may
cause arrhythmias, hypertension and
convulsions.
15. Muscle weakness
Myasthenia gravis or other myopathies
Electrolyte disturbance
Residual neuromuscular blockade or
inadequate reversal - uncoordinated jerky
movements
VT measurement unreliable estimate of
adequacy of reversal as normal VT with only
20% diaphragmatic power, poor coughing
ability
16. Adequate reversal of NM
blockade
Subjective
• Grip strength
• Adequate cough
• TOF/DBS visualised
Objective
• Sustained head lift 5s
• Vital capacity of 10ml/kg
• TOFR from accelerometer
17. Limiting NM blockade reversal
XS NM blocker
Too little time from blockade to reversal
Hypokalaemia, Hypermagnesaemia
Acidosis
Gentamicin
Local anaesthetics
Myopathy
18. NM monitoring
1. Variable individual response to muscle relaxants
2. Narrow therapeutic window. There is no detectable
block until 75 to 85% of receptors are occupied and
paralysis is complete at 90 to 95% receptor occupancy.
TOF: 4 supramaximal, square wave, pulses of 0.2s at
2Hz. 50mA. TOFR >70% best predicts adequate muscle
power.
DBS: 2 short 50Hz bursts of 3 pulses, 750ms apart.
Meant to be easier to visualise.
19. Limits to PNS
Testing TOF/DBS on forearm not same
as testing diaphragm
Neostigmine inhibits metabolism of
acetylcholione. 0.05-0.08mg/kg, peak
effect 7 - 11m, duration 40m
Neostigmine up to 5mg total, in higher
doses can worsen NM function.
20. Delayed elimination of NM
blockers
Prolonged NM blockade as drugs persist can
occur with all except atracurium and it’s
derivative cis-atracurium
Renal or hepatic impairment
Atypical enzymes...
21. Cholinesterase
The enzyme which hydrolyses acetylcholine
and other choline esters at a more rapid rate
than noncholine esters
Specific cholinesterase - highly specific for
acetylcholine and a few closely related esters
Nonspecific cholinesterase (serum cholinesterase
= plasma cholinesterase = pseudocholinesterase =
butyrylcholinesterase = S-type cholinesterase)
Normal range = 4000 – 12,000 IU/L
22. Atypical plasma cholinesterase
Prolonged NM block after
suxamethonium or mivacurium
Either due to absent or faulty plasma
cholinesterase
Sux apnoea lasts 20mins to 8 hrs. 2
commonest defective genes – 20 mins.
23. Genetics
Pseudocholinesterase deficiency is most common in
people of European descent; it is rare in Asians.
The normal gene encoding for plasma cholinesterase
is E1u (usual)
There are three abnormal genes: E1a (atypical), E1s
(silent) and E1f (fluoride-resistant) 94% of the
population are heterozygous for the usual gene (hence
normal response to suxamethonium), E1a
homozygotes occur in 0.03% of the population, E1s
homozygotes in 0.001% and E1f homozygotes in
0.0003% of the population.
25. Dangers of hypercapnia
Hypertension
Tachycardia
CO2 narcosis (>9kPa)
Unconsciousness, coma, respiratory
arrest
26. Treatment
If reversible cause – treat
For Sux/Miva apnoea – consider FFP
Consider use of agent to increase ventilation…
If not immediately reversible and inadequate
ventilation (severe hypercapnia / hypoxia /
clinically deteriorating) then maintain artificial
ventilation with minimal anaesthesia to prevent
awareness
27. Other mechanical causes of
hypoventilation
Obesity
Diaphragmatic splinting from abdo
distension or tight dressings
Pain from thoracic or upper abdominal
wounds
Intra pleural air/fluid/blood. NB
Pneumothorax from IPPV in COPD /
occasionally healthy young patients
28. To artificially increase
ventilation
Controversial
Doxapram
Produces respiratory stimulation mediated through the
peripheral carotid chemoreceptors. As the dosage level is
increased, the central respiratory centres in the medulla are
stimulated with progressive stimulation of other parts of the
brain and spinal cord.
The onset of respiratory stimulation following the recommended
single intravenous injection of doxapram hydrochloride usually
occurs in 20 to 40 seconds with peak effect at 1 to 2 minutes.
The duration of effect may vary from 5 to 12 minutes.
Increased Vt and RR. CI: CAD, Epilepsy
Aminophylline
2mg/kg slow IV bolus. Can cause seizures, increases cerebral
O2 requirements, arrhythmias
29. Paediatric considerations
Particularly sensitive to temperature
Can be extremely opiate sensitive
Prematures are highly susceptible to
apnoea up to 60 weeks gestational age.
Why is complete paralysis of the cords better than partial?
Unilateral neuropraxia not uncommon and results in voice change and slight stridor (abductor fibres more at risk
Bilateral palsy rare:
1/30,000
flaccid cords are drawn together by the Bernouli effect during inspiration
causes complete obstruction requiring reintubation and tracheostomy
it used to be taught to extubate the patient deep to allow evaluation of vocal cord movement by direct laryngoscopy but this is becoming less popular
Vocal cord paralysis is usually secondary to injury of the recurrent laryngeal nerve resulting in unopposed superior laryngeal nerve mediated adduction of the vocal cords. Such an injury can occur with neck surgery (especially thyroidectomy) [48], thoracic surgery [49,50], internal jugular line placement [51], and endotracheal intubation
How much aminophylline?
How much adrenaline?
1 in 10,000, take 1 ml and dilute into 10ml. Each ml is 10mcg of adrenaline. expect a response when given 0.5mcg/kg
All mu receptor opioid agonists, including morphine, fentanyl, sufentanil, and alfentanil, produce dose-dependent depression of ventilation, primarily through a direct action on the medullary respiratory center
The first signs of high spinal block are hypotension, bradycardia and difficulty in breathing. Before hypotension is detected, the patient often complains of nausea or “not feeling well”. Tingling in the fingers indicates a high block at the level of T1
Respiratory difficulty is caused by loss of chest wall sensation caused by paralysis of the intercostal muscles. Patients often describe their breathing as feeling abnormal, but can demonstrate a good inspiration and can cough and speak normally. When a total spinal occurs the nerve supply to the diaphragm (cervical roots 3-5) is blocked and respiratory failure develops rapidly. Early warning signs include poor respiratory effort, whispering and an inability to cough. Sudden respiratory arrest is usually caused by hypoperfusion of the respiratory centres in the brainstem
Myotonic dystrophy (esp. sensitive to thiopentone)
Duchenne’s, Becker’s
Central core disease
Gentamicin or high Mg can be treated with Calcium Chloride 10ml of 10%