2. Introduction
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Lecture name : Fahrul Hakim
Room Number : A 1.29
Tel Number : 017-6886542
Email : http:skr3201.blogspot.com
Email :fahrulhakim@gmail.com
Credit : 3(3 + 0)
Contact hours : 3 x 1 jam kuliah seminggu
Semester : 2 (2008/09)
Prerequisite : SKR 3200
3. Course Objective
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At the end of this course, student
should be able
• To understand the main Internet
protocol, its characteristics and
functions.
4. Synopsis:
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This course covers addressing, binding, routing, Internet
and application protocols, principles and architecture of the
global Internet. Focus is given to the Transportation
Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Suite.
(Kursus ini merangkumi pengalamatan, pengikatan,
penghalaan, protokol applikasi dan Internet,prinsip dan
senibina Internet sejagat. Tumpuan diberikan kepada Sut
transportation control protocol / Internet protocol (TCP/IP))
7. • Terminology (including acronyms)
• Concepts and principles
– The underlying model
– Encapsulation
– End-to-end paradigm
• Naming and addressing
• Functions of protocols including Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP), IP, TCP,
UDP,SMTP, FTP, DHCP, and more
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Introduction
8. • Layering model
– What do you understand about layering
– Give an example
• Internet architecture and routing
– Homework, find the “Internet Architecture”
– Present in class
• Applications
– www
– Email and etc
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Introduction
9. What Is an Internetwork?
• An internetwork is a collection of individual
networks, connected by intermediate networking
devices, that functions as a single large network.
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10. Internetworking
• Internetworking (cisco)
– refers to the industry, products, and procedures that
meet the challenge of creating and administering
internetworks.
• Internetworking: Douglas E. Comer
– an overview of concepts, terminology, and technology
underlying the TCP/IP Internet protocol suite and the
architecture of an internet.
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11. Why Study TCP/IP?
• Before TCP/IP and the Internet
– Two sources of network protocols
• Specific vendors such as IBM or Digital Equipment
• Standards bodies such as the ITU (formerly known as
CCITT)
• TCP/IP
– Vendor independence
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12. Why Study TCP/IP?
• The Internet is everywhere
– What is “Internet”
– What do you understand “everywhere”
• Most applications are distributed
– Give an examples
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13. Who Built TCP/IP?
• Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
– Originally known as Internet Activities Board
• Evolved from Internet Research Group
• Forum for exchange among researchers
• About a dozen members
• Reorganized in 1989 and 1993
• Merged into the Internet Society in 1992
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14. Components Of The IAB Organization
• Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
– Board that oversees and arbitrates
– URL is
http://www.iab.org/iab
• IRTF (Internet Research Task Force)
– Coordinates research on TCP/IP and internetworking
– Virtually defunct, but may re-emerge
– URL
http://www.irtf.org/
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15. Components Of The IAB (continued)
• IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
– Coordinates protocol and Internet engineering
– Headed by Internet Engineering Steering Group
(IESG)
– Divided into N areas (N is 10 plus or minus a
few)
– Each area has a manager
– Composed of working groups (volunteers)
– URL is
http://www.ietf.org
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16. ICANN
• Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
http://www.icann.org
• Formed in 1998 to subsume IANA contract
• Not-for-profit managed by international board
• Now sets policies for addresses and domain names
• Support organizations
– Address allocation (ASO)
– Domain Names (DNSO)
– Protocol parameter assignments (PSO)
http://www.icannwatch.org/
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17. World Wide Web Consortium
• Organization to develop common
protocols for World Wide Web
• Open membership
• Funded by commercial members
• URL is http://w3c.org
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18. Internet Society
• Organization that promotes the use of the
Internet
• Formed in 1992
• Not-for-profit
• Governed by a board of trustees
• Members worldwide
• URL is http://www.isoc.org
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19. Protocol Specifications
And Documents
• Protocols
– A protocol is a formal set of rules and conventions
that governs how computers exchange information
over a network medium.
– documented in series of reports
– Example; Network protocol, routing protocol, etc.
• Documents known as Request For Comments
(RFCs)
– Anyone know about RFCs
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20. RFCs
• Series of reports that include
– TCP/IP protocols
– The Internet
– Related technologies
• Edited by IESG (Eng Steering group), but not
peer-reviewed like scientific journals
• Contain:
– Proposals
– Surveys and measurements
– Protocol standards
• Numbered in chronological order
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21. RFCs (continue)
• Host Requirements Documents
– Major revision/clarification of most TCP/IP protocols
– RFC 1122 (Communication Layers)
– RFC 1123 (Application & Support)
– RFC 1127 (Perspective on 1122-3)
• Router Requirements
– Major specification of protocols used in IP gateways
(routers)
– RFC 1812 (updated by RFC 2644)
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22. Internet Drafts
• Preliminary RFC documents
• Often used by IETF working groups
• Either become RFCs within six months or
disappear
• Available via
– Email
– FTP
– World Wide Web
• http://www.ietf.org/
07/14/13 22
24. History of Internetworking
• IBM’s Systems Network Architecture (SNA) and Digital’s
network architecture.
– time-sharing networks that used mainframes and attached
terminals.
• Local-area networks (LANs)
– relatively small geographical area to exchange files and
messages
– shared resources
– such as file servers and printers.
• Wide-area networks (WANs)
– interconnect LANs with geographically dispersed users to create
– connectivity.
• High-speed LANs and switched internetworks
– operate at very high speeds and support such high-bandwidth
applications as multimedia and videoconferencing.
07/14/13 24
25. Open System Interconnection
Reference Model
• The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference
model describes how information from a software
application in one computer moves through a network
medium to a software application in another computer.
• Divides the tasks involved
• Each layer is reasonably self-contained
• implemented independently.
– enables the solutions offered by one layer to be
updated without adversely affecting the other layers
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26. The OSI Reference Model Contains Seven
Independent Layers
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Upper layer
(Application Layer)
- Implemented only in software
Lower layer
(Data transport Layer)
- Implemented both in hardware
and software
28. Service Users, Providers, and Service Access Points
(SAPs) Interact at the Network and Data Link Layer
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– One OSI layer communicates with another
layer to make use of the services
– The services help a given OSI layer
communicate with its peer layer in other
computer systems.
– Three basic elements are involved in layer
services:
– the service user,
– the service provider, and
– the service access point (SAP).
29. Service Users, Providers, and Service Access Points
(SAPs) Interact at the Network and Data Link Layer
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– Service user is the OSI layer that requests
services from an adjacent OSI layer.
– Service provider is the OSI layer that provides services
to service users. OSI layers can provide services to multiple
service users.
– The SAP is a conceptual location at which one
OSI layer can request the services of another
OSI layer.
30. Service Users, Providers, and Service Access Points
(SAPs) Interact at the Network and Data Link Layer
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32. Basic Network Concept
• The TCP/IP Concept (Five layers;
• Network hardware
–Connection-oriented
– Connectionless
• Packet Switching Networks
– Local Area Network (LAN)
–Wide Area Network (WAN)
–Point-to-point link
–Set of bridged networks
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33. Two Basic Categories
Of Network Hardware
• Connection oriented (circuit switching)
–establish a connection with the desired service before
passing any data
–Operate by forming a dedicated connection or circuit
between 2 points
• Paradigm
•Form a ‘‘connection’’ through the network
•Send / receive data over the connection
•Terminate the connection
–Involves 3 phases: connection establishment, data
transfer, and connection termination
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34. Connection oriented
• Can guarantee bandwidth
–Dedicated circuit, 64 Kbps,128 Kbps, 1M, 2M etx.
–monitor for lost packets and handle resending them
–The protocol is generally also responsible for putting the
packets in the right sequence before passing the data up the
protocol stack
–negotiate a connection, transfer data, and tear down the
connection
• Proponents argue that it works well with
real-time applications
–Independent use
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35. Connection oriented
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• Can guarantee bandwidth
– Dedicated circuit, 64 Kbps,128 Kbps, 1M, 2M etx.
– monitor for lost packets and handle resending them
– The protocol is generally also responsible for putting the packets
in the right sequence before passing the data up the protocol
stack
– negotiate a connection, transfer data, and tear down the
connection
• Proponents argue that it works well with real-
time applications
– Independent use
36. Connectionless
(Packet Switched Technology)
• Paradigm
– Form ‘‘packet’’ of data
– Pass to network
(Data to be transferred across a network is divided into small pieces
called packed that are multiplexed onto high capacity inter-machine
connections)
• Each packet travels independently
– transfer can simply send the data without the added overhead of
creating and tearing down a connection
• Packet includes identification of the destination
– Enables the network hardware to know how to send it to specific
destination
• Each packet can be a different size
• The maximum packet size is fixed (some technologies
limit packet sizes to 1,500 octets or less)
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38. Connectionless
• Advantage
– Multiple communication among computers
can proceed at the simultaneously with
intermachine connection shared by all pairs of
computer that are communicating
• Disadvantage
– Overloaded the networks – computers must
wait before sending additional packets
07/14/13 38
40. Broad Characterizations Of
Packet Switching Networks
• Local Area Network (LAN)
– Engineered for
– Low cost
– High capacity
– Direct connection among computers
– Limited distance
• Wide Area Network (WAN)
– Engineered for
• Long distances
• Indirect interconnection via special-purpose hardware
– Higher cost
– Lower capacity (usually)
• Categories are informal and qualitative
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41. Local Area Networks
• What is LAN
– A LAN is a high-speed data network that covers a relatively small
geographic area. It typically connects workstations, personal
computers, printers, servers, and other devices. .
• Engineered for
– Low cost
– High capacity
– Direct connection among computers
– Limited distance
– LANs offer computer users many advantages, including shared
access to devices and applications, file exchange between
connected users, and communication between users via
electronic mail and other applications
07/14/13 41
43. Wide Area Networks
(Long Haul Networks)
• What is WAN
– A WAN is a data communications network that covers a
relatively broad geographic area and that often uses
transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as
telephone companies.
– WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of
the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer,
and the network layer
• Engineered for
– Long distances
– Indirect interconnection via special-purpose hardware
– Higher cost
– Lower capacity (usually)
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44. A Typical Point-to-Point Link Operates Through a
WAN to a Remote Network
07/14/13 44
http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/
45. Examples Of Packet
Switched Networks
• Wide Area Nets
– ARPANET, NSFNET, ANSNET
– Common carrier services
• Leased line services
– Point-to-point connections
• Local Area Nets
– Ethernet
– Wi-Fi
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46. ARPANET (1969-1989)
• Original backbone of Internet
• Wide area network around which TCP/IP
was developed
• Funding from Advanced Research Project
Agency
• Initial speed 50 Kbps
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47. NSFNET (1987-1992)
• Funded by National Science Foundation
• Motivation: Internet backbone to connect all
scientists and engineers
• Introduced Internet hierarchy
– Wide area backbone spanning geographic U.S.
– Many mid-level (regional) networks that attach to
backbone
– Campus networks at lowest level
• Initial speed 1.544 Mbps
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50. Wide Area Networks Available
From Common Carriers
• In telecommunications, T-carrier, sometimes abbreviated as T-
CXR, is the generic designator for any of several digitally
multiplexed telecommunications carrier systems originally
developed by Bell Labs and used in North America, Japan, and
Korea.
• Optical Carrier levels describe a range of digital signals that
can be carried on Synchronous optical networking SONET
fiber optic network.[1]
The number in the Optical Carrier level is
directly proportional to the data rate of the bitstream carried by
the digital signal.
• The general rule for calculating the speed of Optical Carrier
lines is when a specification is given as OC-n, that the speed
will equal n × 51.8 Mbit/s.[2]
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51. Wide Area Networks Available
From Common Carriers
• Point-to-point digital circuits
– T-series (e.g., T1 = 1.5 Mbps, T3 = 45 Mbps)
– OC-series (e.g., OC-3 = 155 Mbps, OC-48 =
2.4 Gbps)
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52. Wide Area Networks Available
From Common Carriers (cont.)
• OC-1 (Optical) = (1) STS1 on Optical facilities
OC-3 = (3) OC-1s = 155.52mbits/sec
OC-9 = (9) OC-1s (not commonly used) = 466.56mbits/sec
OC-12 = (12) OC-1s or (4) OC-3s = 622.08mbits/sec
OC-18 = (18) OC-1s (not commonly used) = 933.12mbits/sec
OC-24 = (24) OC-1s (not commonly used) = 1.244gbits/sec
OC-36 = (36) OC-1s (not commonly used) = 1.866gbits/sec
OC-48 = (48) OC-1s or (4) OC-12s or (16) OC-3s = 2.488gbits/sec
OC-192= (192) OC-1s or (4) OC-48s or (16) OC-12s or (64) OC-3s
= 9.953gbits/sec
• OC-256 13.271 Gbps
• OC-768 40 Gbps
• What is the latest OC ??? New DWDM systems are now in
development to run at at 10 trillion bits per second (10 Tbps) per
fiber.07/14/13 52
53. Wide Area Networks Available
From Common Carriers (Cont)
• Packet switching services also available
– The size of network can be extended by
adding a new switch and another
communication lines
– The larger the WAN becomes the longer it
takes to route traffic across it
• Examples: ISDN, SMDS, Frame Relay,
ATM
07/14/13 53
54. 2.4 Ethernet—A Brief History
• The original Ethernet was developed as an experimental coaxial cable network in the
1970s by Xerox Corporation to operate with a data rate of 3 Mbps using a carrier
sense multiple access collision detect (CSMA/CD) protocol for LANs with sporadic
but occasionally heavy traffic requirements. Success with that project attracted early
attention and led to the :
– 1980 joint development of the 10-Mbps Ethernet Version 1.0 specification by the three-
company consortium: Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel Corporation, and Xerox
Corporation.
• The original IEEE 802.3 standard was based on, and was very similar to, the Ethernet
Version 1.0 specification. The draft standard was approved by the 802.3 working
group in 1983 and was subsequently published as an official standard in 1985
(ANSI/IEEE Std. 802.3-1985). Since then, a number of supplements to the standard
have been defined to take advantage of improvements in the technologies and to
support additional network media and higher data rate capabilities, plus several new
optional network access control features.
07/14/13 54
55. Ethernet—A Brief History
• Coaxial Cable – Original Wiring Scheme
• Twisted Pair Ethernet – Cat 5 (Because existing telephone wires uses same
technology) – Cheaper and easier to install as compared to coaxial cable.
07/14/13 55
Category 6 cable, commonly referred to
as Cat 6, is a cable standard for
Gigabit Ethernet and other
network protocols that is
backward compatible with the
Category 5/5e and Category 3 cable
standards. Cat-6 features more stringent
specifications for crosstalk and system
noise.
56. 2.4.2 Fast and Gigabit Ethernet
• Extremely popular
• Packet-switched LAN tech
• Can run over
– Copper (twisted pair)
– Optical fiber
Three generations
– 10Base-T operates at 10 Mbps (also depends on the Network
Bandwidth)
To overcome the throughput problem : - same wires at Cat 5, but
achieve more bandwidth by using more wires
– 100Base-T (fast Ethernet) operates at 100 Mbps
– 10/100 Ethernet (dual speed Ethernet)
– 1000Base-T (gigabit Ethernet) operates at 1 Gbps
– 1000 Base-X (fiber optics – Ethernet signals are converted to
light pulses) – 10 – 40 Gbps
07/14/13 56
57. 2.4.2 Fast and Gigabit Ethernet
• Technology known as 10/100/1000 Ethernet is
available for NICs as well as for switches.
• Automatic negotiation and determination of the
cables and maximum speed the other side of the
connection can support
07/14/13 57
58. 2.4.2 Fact for the Day !
• 10BASE-T, one of several physical media
specified in the IEEE 802.3 standard for
Ethernet local area networks (LANs), is ordinary
telephone twisted pair wire.
• 10BASE-T supports Ethernet's 10 Mbps
transmission speed. In addition to 10BASE-T, 10
megabit Ethernet can be implemented with
these media types:
07/14/13 58
59. 2.4.2 Fact for the Day ! (cont.)
• 10BASE-2 (Thinwire coaxial cable with a
maximum segment length of 185 meters)
• 10BASE-5 (Thickwire coaxial cable with a
maximum segment length of 500 meters)
• 10BASE-F (optical fiber cable)
• 10BASE-36 (broadband coaxial cable carrying
multiple baseband channels for a maximum
length of 3,600 meters)
07/14/13 59
60. 2.4.2 Fact for the Day ! (cont.)
• This designation is an Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) shorthand identifier.
• The "10" in the media type designation refers to the
transmission speed of 10 Mbps.
• The "BASE" refers to baseband signalling, which means that
only Ethernet signals are carried on the medium.
• The "T" represents twisted-pair; the "F" represents fiber optic
cable; and the "2", "5", and "36" refer to the coaxial cable
segment length (the 185 meter length has been rounded up to
"2" for 200).
07/14/13 60
61. Power over Ethernet
• Power over Ethernet (PoE) can send small
amount of electrical power over the same
copper cable used for Ethernet
07/14/13 61
62. 2.4.5 Properties of
Ethernet
• Design for shared bus technology that supports
broadcast
– All station connect to a single, shared communication channel
– Transmit a packet to all stations at the same time
– Single segments up to 500m; with up to 4 repeaters gives 2500m max
length
– Max 100 stations/segment, 1024 stations/Ethernet
• Best effort delivery
– Hardware provide no information to the sender about whether
the packet was delivered
07/14/13 62
63. Properties of Ethernet
• CSMA/CD shared medium Ethernet
• Ethernet originally used a shared coaxial cable (the shared medium)
winding around a building or campus to every attached machine. A
scheme known as carrier sense multiple access with collision
detection (CSMA/CD) governed the way the computers shared the
channel. This scheme was simpler than the competing token ring or
token bus technologies.
07/14/13 63
64. Properties of Ethernet
• When a computer wanted to send some information, it used the following
algorithm:
• Main procedure
• Frame ready for transmission.
• Is medium idle? If not, wait until it becomes ready and wait the interframe gap
period (9.6 µs in 10 Mbit/s Ethernet).
• Start transmitting.
• Did a collision occur? If so, go to collision detected procedure.
• Reset retransmission counters and end frame transmission.
• Collision detected procedure (aborts when it detects collisions)
• Continue transmission until minimum packet time is reached (jam signal) to
ensure that all receivers detect the collision.
• Increment retransmission counter.
• Was the maximum number of transmission attempts reached? If so, abort
transmission.
• Calculate and wait random backoff period based on number of collisions. (must
wait for a minimum idle time)
• Re-enter main procedure at stage 1.
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65. 2.4.7. Wireless Networks and Ethernet
• IEEE standards:
• IEEE 802.11b – Wi-Fi (max 11Mbps)
• IEEE 802.11a and 802.11g – 54Mbps
• IEEE 802.16 – WiMax ; IEEE802.n –
• 540 Mbps and 802.11i (Security)
• Enables multiple users to share a broadband connection
• Supports WiFi 802.11 b/g
• Four RJ45 Local Area Network ports available
• Additional Home Voice Service • Easy to use - plug and play
• Supports Windows™ 2000, XP and Vista only
07/14/13 65
67. Ethernet Hardware Addresses
• 48-bit addressing scheme
• Each NIC card is assigned a unique 48-bit
number known as an Ethernet Address
• How?
– Ethernet hardware manufacturers purchase blocks of
Ethernet technologies and assign them in sequence.
– Physical addresses
– Recall, that when computers connect to a hub, each
computer receives a copy of every packet sent
07/14/13 67
68. Ethernet Frame Format
• Layer 2 – thought of as link-level connection
• Header format fixed (Destination, Source, Type fields)
• Frame data size can vary from packet to packet
– Maximum 1518 octets
– Minimum 64 octets
• Preamble and CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) removed by
framer hardware before
– frame stored in computer’s memory; both sender and
receiver calculate the CRCs and counter check
• Self Identifying (used by the OS to determine which protocol –
therefore a system can have many protocols)
– Determine which protocol software module should process
the frame07/14/13 68
69. Example Ethernet Frame In Memory
• Octets shown in hexadecimal
• Destination is 02.07.01.00.27.ba
• Source is 08.00.2b.0d.44.a7
• Frame type is 08.00 (IP)
07/14/13 69
70. Point-to-Point Network
• Any direct connection between two
computers
– Leased line
– Connection between two routers
– Dialup connection
• Link-level protocol required for framing
• TCP/IP views as an independent network
07/14/13 70
71. Bridge
• Hardware device that connects multiple LANs and
makes them appear to be a single LAN
• Repeats all packets from one LAN to the other and vice
versa (does not replicate noise, errors or malformed
frames – must be valid frame)
• Introduces delay of 1 packet-time
• Does not forward collisions or noise
• Called Layer 2 Interconnect or Layer 2 forwarder
• Makes multiple LANs appear to be a single, large LAN
• Often embedded in other equipment (e.g., DSL modem)
• Watches packets to learn which computers are on which
• side of the bridge (adaptive bridges)
• Uses hardware addresses to filter07/14/13 71
73. Local and Remote Bridges Connect LAN
Segments in Specific Areas
07/14/13 73
74. Bridging & Switching
• Function
– controls data flow, handles transmission errors,
provides physical (as opposed to logical) addressing,
and manages access to the physical medium.
• by using various link layer protocols that dictate specific flow
control, error handling, addressing, and media-access
algorithms
• Task
– analyze incoming frames, make forwarding decisions
based on information contained in the frames, and
forward the frames toward the destination
07/14/13 74
75. ATM – Asynchronous Transfer Mode
• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a cell relay,
packet switching network and data link layer protocol
which encodes data traffic into small (53 octets; 48
octets of data and 5 octets of header information) fixed-
sized cells. ATM provides data link layer services that
run over Layer 1 links. This differs from other
technologies based on packet-switched networks (such
as the Internet Protocol or Ethernet), in which variable
sized packets (known as frames when referencing Layer
2) are used.
07/14/13 75
76. Physical Networks As
Viewed By TCP/IP
• TCP/IP protocols accommodate
– Local Area Network
– Wide Area Network
– Point-to-point link
07/14/13 76
79. Network level Interconnection
• Network-level gateways
– Delivers small packets of data from their original
source to their ultimate destination without using
intermediate application program
• Gateway forwards individual packets
• Advantage
07/14/13 79
1.Efficient – directly mapping 2.Separate data comm. activities
3. Flexible system 4.Unlimited communication
