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Jason Sauder 
The Bible & American Culture 
Mr. Justin Harbin 
11 November 2014 
The GGoooodd,, tthhee BBaadd,, aanndd tthhee UUggllyy ooff 
AAmmeerriiccaa’’ss SSeeccoonndd BBiigg RReevviivvaall 
Known as “The Second Great Awakening”
I. What was The Second Great Awakening? 
• The Second Great Awakening began in about 1780 
after the American Revolution. It lasted until about 
1830 and it left a permanent imprint on America’s 
religious life (Hatch 6). 
• The second great awakening was not an abstract idea of 
“revivalism” that mysteriously swelled during this time. 
Rather, it was something that happened to people and 
by people, who may or may not have been led by God. 
“The first third of the nineteenth century experienced a 
period of religious ferment, chaos, and originality 
unmatched in American history.” –Nathan O. Hatch
II.. WWhhaatt wwaass TThhee SSeeccoonndd GGrreeaatt AAwwaakkeenniinngg?? 
•It was not a brilliantly planned response by the 
religious elites to the challenges of the day. 
•It was “Christianity… effectively reshaped by 
common people (Hatch 9).” 
•It was essentially the wildly successful democratization 
of Christianity (Hatch 9). 
•It was the main turning point which distinguished 
America from other nations where freedom and religion 
often led in opposite directions (Hatch 5).
I. What was The Second Great Awakening? 
Aw The leaders of The Second Great Awaakkeenniinngg ddeemmooccrraattiizzeedd 
CChhrriissttiiaanniittyy iinn aatt lleeaasstt tthhrreeee wwaayyss:: 
• They denied the distinction between clergy and 
ordinary men and they refused to respect those who 
were trained in theology (Hatch 9). 
• They accepted the spiritual impulses of common folk, 
rather than “subjecting them to the scrutiny of 
orthodox doctrine (Hatch 10).” 
• They were religious outsiders who became very 
successful religious leaders (Hatch 10).
II. What Caused The Second Great 
Awakening? 
TThhrreeee mmaajjoorr ccaauusseess…… 
1. The American Revolution 
2. The Enlightenment 
3. The free market of religious 
ideas
IIII.. WWhhaatt CCaauusseedd TThhee SSeeccoonndd GGrreeaatt 
AAwwaakkeenniinngg?? 
Cause #1: The American Revolution 
• This victory fueled enthusiasm for freedom, 
autonomy, individualism, equality and disdain 
for authority and high class. 
• In the name of equality and freedom, people 
were enthusiastically erasing the boundaries 
between the gentleman and the commoner 
(Hatch 44). 
• These factors led to an anti-clerical outburst.
II. What Caused The Second Great 
Awakening? 
Cause #2: The 
Enlightenment 
• Enlightenment thinking had heavily influenced 
the framers of America. 
• This ideology was influencing the masses by 
increasing reliance on individual reason and 
undermining reliance on divine revelation and 
received tradition. 
• The Second Great Awakening adapted to these 
demands.
II. What Caused The Second Great 
Awakening? 
Cause #3: The free market of Religious Ideas 
•America became a competitive, mmaarrkkeett--ddrriivveenn ssoocciieettyy 
aanndd tthhiiss bbeeccaammee tthhee ppaarraaddiiggmm ffoorr rreelliiggiioonn.. 
•IInn tthhiiss ccoommppeettiittiivvee eennvviirroonnmmeenntt,, rreelliiggiioouuss mmoovveemmeennttss 
aanndd lleeaaddeerrss wwhhoo uusseedd mmoorree aaggggrreessssiivvee mmeeaannss ooff 
rreeccrruuiittmmeenntt eennjjooyyeedd aann aaddvvaannttaaggee ((HHaattcchh 1155)).. 
•OOuuttssiiddeerrss wweerree aallssoo ddeevveellooppiinngg aa lloooossee tthheeoollooggyy tthhaatt 
mmoorree cclloosseellyy rreesseemmbblleedd wwhhaatt tthhee lloowweerr ccllaassss bbeelliieevveedd 
((HHaattcchh 4455))..
IIII.. WWhhaatt CCaauusseedd TThhee SSeeccoonndd GGrreeaatt 
AAwwaakkeenniinngg?? 
In addition, traditional denominations were not 
ready for the demands of the Enlightenment and 
Democracy, as well as various social needs. 
•For instance, the frontier was unsettled by many 
of the same complaints the colonies had raised 
against Britain. 
•Graduates of Harvard and Yale were far from 
eager to accept or create pastoral posts on the 
harsh frontier (Hatch 30, 59).
III. What happened? 
There were five major religious movements 
within the Second Great Awakening : 
1. The “Christian” movement 
2. Methodists 
3. Baptists 
4. Black churches 
5. Mormons (Hatch 4). 
© The Barna Group, Ltd, 2009.
III. What happened? 
These five movements were wildly theologically 
divergent; however they all shared certain characteristics. 
•f This was a time of “evangelistic feerrvvoorr aanndd ppooppllaarr ssoovveerreeiiggnnttyy”” 
(HHaattcchh 99)).. 
•TThheeyy aallll wwoorrkkeedd ttiirreelleessssllyy,, hhaadd aa ppaassssiioonn ffoorr eexxppaannssiioonn aanndd hhoossttiilliittyy ttoo 
oorrtthhooddooxxyy (HHaattcchh 44)).. 
•AA mmaarrkk ooff tthheessee rreelliiggiioouuss mmoovveemmeennttss wwaass aa ccoommmmiittmmeenntt ttoo llaayy 
pprreeaacchhiinngg.. 
•TThhee oonnllyy pprreerreeqquuiissiitteess ttoo aa ppoossiittiioonn ooff lleeaaddeerrsshhiipp iinn mmaannyy 
mmoovveemmeennttss wweerree aa sseennssee ooff ddiivviinnee ccaalllliinngg aanndd aa ttaalleenntt ffoorr mmoovviinngg 
ppeeooppllee (HHaattcchh 113344))..
III. What happened? 
A newly established network of religious 
communication formed from itinerate preachers, an 
explosion of printed material and camp meetings. 
This new network meant that clergymen were 
no longer the unrivaled source of information. 
There was also a cultural shift which made 
clergymen a smaller and smaller percentage of 
educated professionals. 
The end result was that people had to make up their own 
minds on religious matters and the audience became the 
ultimate judge. 
These changes in turn lead to a shift from a relatively 
coherent Christian culture to a pluralistic one (Hatch 
126).
III. What happened? 
Calvinism had been highly respected… 
until now. 
• Calvinism was painted as a tyrannical theology and this 
was enough to damn it in the common mind (Hatch 
170). 
• In fact, a hatred of Calvinism united the otherwise 
diverse movements spawned by the Second Great 
Awakening (Hatch 172). 
• Enlightenment common sense was used to undermine 
Calvinism. 
• This movement eventually failed to even consider the 
traditional theological categories.
III. What happened? 
The most rreemmaarrkkaabbllee ffeeaattuurree ooff tthhiiss mmoovveemmeenntt wwaass 
iittss ffaasscciinnaattiinngg ggrroouupp ooff llaayy lleeaaddeerrss.. 
•These leaders were “bold, self-educated, self-confident… 
inventive [and] charismatic,” but they 
“differed radically in theological outlook and 
organizational intent” (Hatch 56). 
•Without formal training, they went outside the 
normal denominational lines to form huge followings 
through “the democratic art of persuasion” (Hatch 
13). 
•This new type of minister, by necessity, had to be 
keenly attuned to popular sentiment.
III. What happened? 
•These new leaders embraced an outlook that was 
individualistic and modern (DAC 14). One of the 
reasons these new leaders were so effective at 
communicating is that they identified with 
common people by, among other things, speaking 
in the vernacular. 
•In this new model, ironically, the audience granted 
authority to “leaders” whose person and message and 
style best resonated with their own interests (DAC 134). 
•Three of the prominent leaders were Francis 
Asbury, Lorenzo Dow and Charles Finney. 
Finney is particularly interesting…
III. What happened? 
Finney was ordained in a traditional Presbyterian 
Church (Hatch 196). He was “self taught, blunt 
and immensely persuasive” (Hatch196). He 
quickly became the most in demand preacher of 
the Second Great Awakening (Hatch 196). 
But there was a problem. 
Finney called for a fundamental shift in theology from 
being God-focused to being audience-focused (Hatch 
197). However, whatever is the focus of your theology is 
your God. In fact, Charles Finney was not even a 
Christian…
III. What happened? 
“Full present obedience is a condition of 
justification… simultaneously justified and sinful… 
this error has slain more souls… whenever a 
Christian sins, he comes under condemnation… and 
must do his first works or be lost… As has already 
been said, there can be no justification in a legal or 
forensic sense, but upon the ground of universal, 
perfect, and uninterrupted obedience to the law… 
The doctrine of an imputed righteousness, or that 
Christ’s obedience to the law was accounted as our 
obedience, is founded on a most false and 
nonsensical assumption, for Christ’s righteous could 
do no more than justify himself… It was naturally 
impossible, then for him to obey in our behalf.” 
(Horton 45). 
-Charles Finney
IV. The Mixed Legacy 
The legacy of the Second Great Awakening is loaded with irony. 
• These leaders and movements became successful because they 
were outsiders and common but their success meant that this 
was no longer the case and most of these movements 
succumbed to the pull of respectability. 
• In the end, in order to establish a stable tradition, the 
movements that emerged in the Second Great Awakening had to 
take on the very features they had rejected, such as educational 
institutions and theology (Hatch 195). 
• Therefore, a new generation of reformers rejected them for the 
same reasons they had originally rejected the establishment; 
creating a virtually unending cycle of division (Hatch 195).
IV The Mixed Legacy 
• Ironically this movement espoused the belief that theology 
lead to fighting and division and that a return to a simple faith 
based on common sense, the Bible alone and emotion would 
restore peace and unity (Hatch 163). In reality, this movement 
produced an unprecedented splintering and division within 
Christianity and often spilled over into heterodoxy. This has 
undermined the credibility of Christianity 
• The common people became the authority and those who 
trafficked in ideas were sidelined. Because of this, America 
never produced another theologian like Jonathan Edwards 
(Hatch 162). In modern America, Christianity is still largely led 
by popular leaders rather than Christianity’s greatest thinkers. 
• This movement undermined the intelligence of American 
Christianity in general.. Timothy Dwight summarized the 
problem- “While they demand a seven-year apprenticeship for 
the purpose of learning to make a shoe, or an axe; they 
suppose the system of Providence, together with the 
numerous, and frequently abstruse, doctrines and precepts, 
contained in the Scriptures, may be all comprehended without 
learning labour, or time” (Hatch 19).
IV The Mixed Legacy 
Benefits of the Second Great Awakening 
• -It striped preaching of its flowery and unnecessarily sophisticated 
speech. Such speech is at odds with the humbling message of the 
Gospel. 
• -It dramatically increased the size and influence of its type of 
Christianity in this country. 
• -It took seriously the call to minister to those despised by society. 
• -Though flawed, it had a strong emphasis on recruitment or 
witnessing. 
• -It encouraged ministers to forsake cultural acclaim and affluence. 
• -Though also flawed, it encouraged people to think for themselves 
about what they believed.
IV The Mixed Legacy 
The dark side… 
•Popularity became mmoorree iimmppoorrttaanntt tthhaann TTrruutthh.. 
•CChhrriissttiiaanniittyy’’ss tthheeoollooggiiccaall ssaaffeegguuaarrddss wweerree rreemmoovveedd.. 
•CCoonnsseeqquueennttllyy,, mmaannyy wweerree aaddmmiitttteedd iinnttoo tthhee cchhuurrcchh aanndd 
eevveenn iinnttoo nnaattiioonnaall lleeaaddeerrsshhiipp wwhhoo wweerree nnoott eevveenn 
CChhrriissttiiaannss.. 
•CChhrriissttiiaanniittyy’’ss iinntteelllleecctt wwaass sseerriioouussllyy ddaammaaggeedd aass tthhee ffooccuuss 
sshhiifftteedd ttoo eemmoottiioonn aanndd sseennssaattiioonnaalliissmm.. 
•CChhrriissttiiaanniittyy iinn tthhee SSeeccoonndd GGrreeaatt aawwaakkeenniinngg lloosstt iittss 
ssoouurrccee ooff aauutthhoorriittyy.. 
•TThhee SSeeccoonndd GGrreeaatt AAwwaakkeenniinngg mmaaddee ddaannggeerroouuss 
ccoommpprroommiisseess wwiitthh nnoonn-CChhrriissttiiaann iiddeeaass,, ssuucchh aass tthhee 
cceennttrraalliittyy ooff tthhee iinnddiivviidduuaall aanndd tthhee ssuupprreemmaaccyy ooff 
aauuttoonnoommoouuss rreeaassoonn..
Works Cited 
Hatch, Nathan O. The Democratization of American Christianity. 
Yale University Press, New Haven: 1989. 
Horton, Michael. Christless Christianity: the Alternative Gospel of 
the American Church. Baker Publishing Group, Grand 
Rapids, MI: 2008.

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The Good, the Bad & the Ugly: the Second Great Awakening

  • 1. Jason Sauder The Bible & American Culture Mr. Justin Harbin 11 November 2014 The GGoooodd,, tthhee BBaadd,, aanndd tthhee UUggllyy ooff AAmmeerriiccaa’’ss SSeeccoonndd BBiigg RReevviivvaall Known as “The Second Great Awakening”
  • 2. I. What was The Second Great Awakening? • The Second Great Awakening began in about 1780 after the American Revolution. It lasted until about 1830 and it left a permanent imprint on America’s religious life (Hatch 6). • The second great awakening was not an abstract idea of “revivalism” that mysteriously swelled during this time. Rather, it was something that happened to people and by people, who may or may not have been led by God. “The first third of the nineteenth century experienced a period of religious ferment, chaos, and originality unmatched in American history.” –Nathan O. Hatch
  • 3. II.. WWhhaatt wwaass TThhee SSeeccoonndd GGrreeaatt AAwwaakkeenniinngg?? •It was not a brilliantly planned response by the religious elites to the challenges of the day. •It was “Christianity… effectively reshaped by common people (Hatch 9).” •It was essentially the wildly successful democratization of Christianity (Hatch 9). •It was the main turning point which distinguished America from other nations where freedom and religion often led in opposite directions (Hatch 5).
  • 4. I. What was The Second Great Awakening? Aw The leaders of The Second Great Awaakkeenniinngg ddeemmooccrraattiizzeedd CChhrriissttiiaanniittyy iinn aatt lleeaasstt tthhrreeee wwaayyss:: • They denied the distinction between clergy and ordinary men and they refused to respect those who were trained in theology (Hatch 9). • They accepted the spiritual impulses of common folk, rather than “subjecting them to the scrutiny of orthodox doctrine (Hatch 10).” • They were religious outsiders who became very successful religious leaders (Hatch 10).
  • 5. II. What Caused The Second Great Awakening? TThhrreeee mmaajjoorr ccaauusseess…… 1. The American Revolution 2. The Enlightenment 3. The free market of religious ideas
  • 6. IIII.. WWhhaatt CCaauusseedd TThhee SSeeccoonndd GGrreeaatt AAwwaakkeenniinngg?? Cause #1: The American Revolution • This victory fueled enthusiasm for freedom, autonomy, individualism, equality and disdain for authority and high class. • In the name of equality and freedom, people were enthusiastically erasing the boundaries between the gentleman and the commoner (Hatch 44). • These factors led to an anti-clerical outburst.
  • 7. II. What Caused The Second Great Awakening? Cause #2: The Enlightenment • Enlightenment thinking had heavily influenced the framers of America. • This ideology was influencing the masses by increasing reliance on individual reason and undermining reliance on divine revelation and received tradition. • The Second Great Awakening adapted to these demands.
  • 8. II. What Caused The Second Great Awakening? Cause #3: The free market of Religious Ideas •America became a competitive, mmaarrkkeett--ddrriivveenn ssoocciieettyy aanndd tthhiiss bbeeccaammee tthhee ppaarraaddiiggmm ffoorr rreelliiggiioonn.. •IInn tthhiiss ccoommppeettiittiivvee eennvviirroonnmmeenntt,, rreelliiggiioouuss mmoovveemmeennttss aanndd lleeaaddeerrss wwhhoo uusseedd mmoorree aaggggrreessssiivvee mmeeaannss ooff rreeccrruuiittmmeenntt eennjjooyyeedd aann aaddvvaannttaaggee ((HHaattcchh 1155)).. •OOuuttssiiddeerrss wweerree aallssoo ddeevveellooppiinngg aa lloooossee tthheeoollooggyy tthhaatt mmoorree cclloosseellyy rreesseemmbblleedd wwhhaatt tthhee lloowweerr ccllaassss bbeelliieevveedd ((HHaattcchh 4455))..
  • 9. IIII.. WWhhaatt CCaauusseedd TThhee SSeeccoonndd GGrreeaatt AAwwaakkeenniinngg?? In addition, traditional denominations were not ready for the demands of the Enlightenment and Democracy, as well as various social needs. •For instance, the frontier was unsettled by many of the same complaints the colonies had raised against Britain. •Graduates of Harvard and Yale were far from eager to accept or create pastoral posts on the harsh frontier (Hatch 30, 59).
  • 10. III. What happened? There were five major religious movements within the Second Great Awakening : 1. The “Christian” movement 2. Methodists 3. Baptists 4. Black churches 5. Mormons (Hatch 4). © The Barna Group, Ltd, 2009.
  • 11. III. What happened? These five movements were wildly theologically divergent; however they all shared certain characteristics. •f This was a time of “evangelistic feerrvvoorr aanndd ppooppllaarr ssoovveerreeiiggnnttyy”” (HHaattcchh 99)).. •TThheeyy aallll wwoorrkkeedd ttiirreelleessssllyy,, hhaadd aa ppaassssiioonn ffoorr eexxppaannssiioonn aanndd hhoossttiilliittyy ttoo oorrtthhooddooxxyy (HHaattcchh 44)).. •AA mmaarrkk ooff tthheessee rreelliiggiioouuss mmoovveemmeennttss wwaass aa ccoommmmiittmmeenntt ttoo llaayy pprreeaacchhiinngg.. •TThhee oonnllyy pprreerreeqquuiissiitteess ttoo aa ppoossiittiioonn ooff lleeaaddeerrsshhiipp iinn mmaannyy mmoovveemmeennttss wweerree aa sseennssee ooff ddiivviinnee ccaalllliinngg aanndd aa ttaalleenntt ffoorr mmoovviinngg ppeeooppllee (HHaattcchh 113344))..
  • 12. III. What happened? A newly established network of religious communication formed from itinerate preachers, an explosion of printed material and camp meetings. This new network meant that clergymen were no longer the unrivaled source of information. There was also a cultural shift which made clergymen a smaller and smaller percentage of educated professionals. The end result was that people had to make up their own minds on religious matters and the audience became the ultimate judge. These changes in turn lead to a shift from a relatively coherent Christian culture to a pluralistic one (Hatch 126).
  • 13. III. What happened? Calvinism had been highly respected… until now. • Calvinism was painted as a tyrannical theology and this was enough to damn it in the common mind (Hatch 170). • In fact, a hatred of Calvinism united the otherwise diverse movements spawned by the Second Great Awakening (Hatch 172). • Enlightenment common sense was used to undermine Calvinism. • This movement eventually failed to even consider the traditional theological categories.
  • 14. III. What happened? The most rreemmaarrkkaabbllee ffeeaattuurree ooff tthhiiss mmoovveemmeenntt wwaass iittss ffaasscciinnaattiinngg ggrroouupp ooff llaayy lleeaaddeerrss.. •These leaders were “bold, self-educated, self-confident… inventive [and] charismatic,” but they “differed radically in theological outlook and organizational intent” (Hatch 56). •Without formal training, they went outside the normal denominational lines to form huge followings through “the democratic art of persuasion” (Hatch 13). •This new type of minister, by necessity, had to be keenly attuned to popular sentiment.
  • 15. III. What happened? •These new leaders embraced an outlook that was individualistic and modern (DAC 14). One of the reasons these new leaders were so effective at communicating is that they identified with common people by, among other things, speaking in the vernacular. •In this new model, ironically, the audience granted authority to “leaders” whose person and message and style best resonated with their own interests (DAC 134). •Three of the prominent leaders were Francis Asbury, Lorenzo Dow and Charles Finney. Finney is particularly interesting…
  • 16. III. What happened? Finney was ordained in a traditional Presbyterian Church (Hatch 196). He was “self taught, blunt and immensely persuasive” (Hatch196). He quickly became the most in demand preacher of the Second Great Awakening (Hatch 196). But there was a problem. Finney called for a fundamental shift in theology from being God-focused to being audience-focused (Hatch 197). However, whatever is the focus of your theology is your God. In fact, Charles Finney was not even a Christian…
  • 17. III. What happened? “Full present obedience is a condition of justification… simultaneously justified and sinful… this error has slain more souls… whenever a Christian sins, he comes under condemnation… and must do his first works or be lost… As has already been said, there can be no justification in a legal or forensic sense, but upon the ground of universal, perfect, and uninterrupted obedience to the law… The doctrine of an imputed righteousness, or that Christ’s obedience to the law was accounted as our obedience, is founded on a most false and nonsensical assumption, for Christ’s righteous could do no more than justify himself… It was naturally impossible, then for him to obey in our behalf.” (Horton 45). -Charles Finney
  • 18. IV. The Mixed Legacy The legacy of the Second Great Awakening is loaded with irony. • These leaders and movements became successful because they were outsiders and common but their success meant that this was no longer the case and most of these movements succumbed to the pull of respectability. • In the end, in order to establish a stable tradition, the movements that emerged in the Second Great Awakening had to take on the very features they had rejected, such as educational institutions and theology (Hatch 195). • Therefore, a new generation of reformers rejected them for the same reasons they had originally rejected the establishment; creating a virtually unending cycle of division (Hatch 195).
  • 19. IV The Mixed Legacy • Ironically this movement espoused the belief that theology lead to fighting and division and that a return to a simple faith based on common sense, the Bible alone and emotion would restore peace and unity (Hatch 163). In reality, this movement produced an unprecedented splintering and division within Christianity and often spilled over into heterodoxy. This has undermined the credibility of Christianity • The common people became the authority and those who trafficked in ideas were sidelined. Because of this, America never produced another theologian like Jonathan Edwards (Hatch 162). In modern America, Christianity is still largely led by popular leaders rather than Christianity’s greatest thinkers. • This movement undermined the intelligence of American Christianity in general.. Timothy Dwight summarized the problem- “While they demand a seven-year apprenticeship for the purpose of learning to make a shoe, or an axe; they suppose the system of Providence, together with the numerous, and frequently abstruse, doctrines and precepts, contained in the Scriptures, may be all comprehended without learning labour, or time” (Hatch 19).
  • 20. IV The Mixed Legacy Benefits of the Second Great Awakening • -It striped preaching of its flowery and unnecessarily sophisticated speech. Such speech is at odds with the humbling message of the Gospel. • -It dramatically increased the size and influence of its type of Christianity in this country. • -It took seriously the call to minister to those despised by society. • -Though flawed, it had a strong emphasis on recruitment or witnessing. • -It encouraged ministers to forsake cultural acclaim and affluence. • -Though also flawed, it encouraged people to think for themselves about what they believed.
  • 21. IV The Mixed Legacy The dark side… •Popularity became mmoorree iimmppoorrttaanntt tthhaann TTrruutthh.. •CChhrriissttiiaanniittyy’’ss tthheeoollooggiiccaall ssaaffeegguuaarrddss wweerree rreemmoovveedd.. •CCoonnsseeqquueennttllyy,, mmaannyy wweerree aaddmmiitttteedd iinnttoo tthhee cchhuurrcchh aanndd eevveenn iinnttoo nnaattiioonnaall lleeaaddeerrsshhiipp wwhhoo wweerree nnoott eevveenn CChhrriissttiiaannss.. •CChhrriissttiiaanniittyy’’ss iinntteelllleecctt wwaass sseerriioouussllyy ddaammaaggeedd aass tthhee ffooccuuss sshhiifftteedd ttoo eemmoottiioonn aanndd sseennssaattiioonnaalliissmm.. •CChhrriissttiiaanniittyy iinn tthhee SSeeccoonndd GGrreeaatt aawwaakkeenniinngg lloosstt iittss ssoouurrccee ooff aauutthhoorriittyy.. •TThhee SSeeccoonndd GGrreeaatt AAwwaakkeenniinngg mmaaddee ddaannggeerroouuss ccoommpprroommiisseess wwiitthh nnoonn-CChhrriissttiiaann iiddeeaass,, ssuucchh aass tthhee cceennttrraalliittyy ooff tthhee iinnddiivviidduuaall aanndd tthhee ssuupprreemmaaccyy ooff aauuttoonnoommoouuss rreeaassoonn..
  • 22. Works Cited Hatch, Nathan O. The Democratization of American Christianity. Yale University Press, New Haven: 1989. Horton, Michael. Christless Christianity: the Alternative Gospel of the American Church. Baker Publishing Group, Grand Rapids, MI: 2008.