1. Theories of Human Development
Integrative Perspectives
THE ORGANISMIC PERSPECTIVE – PART III
Dale Goldhaer

2. Four Perspectives
1. Developmental Psychobiological Perspective
2. Jean Piaget’s Constructivist Theory
3. Neo-Piagetian Perspectives
4. The Psychodynamic models of Freud and Eikson
pp. 2

3. DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Arnold Gesell, Myrtle McGraw, Esther Thelen, Gerald Edelman

4. Basic Assumptions of a Developmental
Psychobiological Perspective
Gottlieb’s Bidirectional Model
1. Planes of Action: An organism exists simultaneously at a number of
planes of action – from the level of the gene, to the level of the cell,
to that of organs and then organ systems, and finally to the level of
individual.
2. Characteristics of development: All levels or planes of activity adhere
to the same set of defining characteristics – i.e. change at any level
is irreversible, developing systems are active, organisms develop.
Successive reorganizations is called stages.

5. Gesell’s Maturation Theory of
Human Development
1. Human development as an “order of nature” – a
sequence of changes or maturations regulated by a
genetically defined timetable
2. The key element is biological structure – in particular,
the structure of the nervous system
3. The role of the environment is to support and nurture.
When the child is ready for new experience, the
environment had to be ready to provide them
(readiness)
4. Developmental Principles:
 Principle of developmental direction: motor development moves along
three gradients: cephalo to caudal, proximal-to-distal, ulnar-to-radial
 Principle of reciprocal interweaving: course of development resembles
a spring or helix
 Principle of functional asymmetry: in some case asymmetry rather than
symmetry is the preferred, more adaptive, developmental outcome
 Principle of individuating maturation
 Principle of self regulatory fluctuation

6. McGraw’s Growth Theory of Human
Development
1. Three factors must be considered when viewing
long-term stability of early intervention efforts:
 Degree of fixity: critical periods in development
 Degree to which physical changes in the
developing child facilitate or hinder the
subsequent expression of initial behavior
 Changes in children’s attitudes
1. Findings: (a) it is possible to alter typical behavior
patterns, (b) the long-term permanence of such
changes reflects the interplay of a number of
developmental systems
2. Development is bidirectional process in which
structure and function mutually influence each other

7. Thelen’s Dynamic Systems Theory
Development is multi-determined
• there is not 1 element in the system that controls developmental
change
• behavior is the result of many elements interacting through time
– stepping reflex depends on interaction of muscle strength, leg weight,
etc.
Development is softly assembled
• the elements of a behavioral system can interact in many different ways
depending on the task, context, etc.
– stepping reflex appears and disappears depending on whether the
infant is in water, is wearing leg weights, etc.
Development is non-linear
• the elements of a behavioral system often interact in non-linear ways
• small change in one element leads to big changes in behavior
– add a small amount of weight to infants’ legs, stepping disappears (big
change in behavior)

8. Edelman’s Dynamic Systems Theory
According to Edelman’s theory, the primary repertoire responds when the message to
which it is susceptible is received. Such receipt causes the neuron group to emit its own
signal, which is recognized in turn by a second level of neural groups called the "secondary
brain repertoire."
Consciousness arises when impulses and patterns generated by the secondary repertoire
are cycled around and fed back in as fresh input for other units in the secondary repertoire.
While the primary system only responds to direct sensory data from the outside, the
secondary system can also respond to internally-generated data as if it were externally-
generated. This self-monitoring effect gives rise to human consciousness because it allows a
review of internal states. In other words, the brain can watch itself work.

9. PIAGET’s CONSTRUCTIVIST
THEORY
Arnold Gesell, Myrtle McGraw, Esther Thelen, Gerald Edelman

10. Piaget’s Development Perspective
1. There is a cumulative dimension to subject / object
interactions
2. It is difficult to clearly distinguish actions on objects in
the real world from actions on objects in
consciousness
3. We come to know something only by acting on it
4. Knowledge is never a perfect carbon copy of reality
(an approximation which increasingly comes to
resemble objective reality as individuals become
more competent)

11. Causal Factors in Piaget’s Theory
Three factors:
1.Maturation (sets a significant upper limit on development)
2.Experience with the social world
3.Experience with the physical world

12. The Two Sides of Piaget’s
Constructivist Theory
1. The Functional Side
 Adaptation: two complementary processes: assimilation
(interpreting new experiences in the context of previous
knowledge, i.e. create schema) and accommodation (to resolve
cognitive conflict, make a change – i.e. change schema
because it doesn’t fit)
 Organization: Efforts to adapt are interconnected in a systematic
fashion
1. The Structural Side
 Schemes (generalized action patterns)
 Cognitive operations (action in a mental representation)
 Groupings (combinativity, associativity, identity, and reversibility)

13. Stage 1: Birth to 6 weeks – Reflexes
Stage 2: 6 weeks to 4-5 months – Primary circular reaction
Stage 3: 4-5 months to 9 months – Secondary circular reaction
Stage 4: 9 months to 12 months – Object Permanence
Stage 5: 12 months to 18 months: tertiary circular reaction
Stage 6: 18 months to 24 months: Beginnings of symbolic thought

14. NEO-PIAGETIAN PERSPECTIVES
Kurt Fischer, Gisela Labouvie-Vief, William Damon

15. Fischer’s Skill Theory
1. Fischer’s sequences are
markers of the development
of skills.
2. Four Tiers: Reflex, Sensori-
motor, representational, and
abstract
3. Each tier is in turn defined in
terms of four levels
 Single Point: Demonstrate
the skill to control specific
actions
 Mappings: the ability to
integrate and differentiate
specific actions
 Systems: skills are
coordinated into systems

16. Labouvie-Vief’s Theory of Adult
Development
1. Offers an extension of Piaget’s theory into the adult years
2. Young adults reports are characterized as reflecting a “goal
oriented individual whose evaluations are guided by
achievement-oriented and conventional goals, values, and
roles.
3. Development across the adult years reflects an individual’s
ability to reunite the dualities of mind and self. This takes place
over a 5 step sequence:
 Concrete-presystemic level (behavioral action and psychological states)
 Interpersonal-protosystemic level (relationships and networks)
 Institutional-intrasystemic level (coordination of action and states)
 Contextual-intersystemic level (personal desire and institutional constraints)
 Dynamic inter-subjective (change & transformation)

17. Damon’s Moral Goals Model
1. William Damon’s early research was focused on children’s
understanding of moral issues such as friendship, equity, and
authority. This was followed by work looking at children’s
concept of self-understanding, and more recently, his work has
focused on moral development during the adult years. He
focuses on the interplay between thought and action.
2. Damon’s findings with respect to children’s understanding of
positive justice and obedience shows there is a developmental
progression in these 2 moral issues
3. Damon’s two dimensions of self-understanding are the self-as-
subject and the self-as-object

18. The Psychodynamic Models of
Freud & Erikson

19. Freud’s Stages of
Psychosexual Development

20. Freud’s – Id, Ego, and Superego
1. Superego – arises out of the
ego to deal with the child’s
acceptance of the
expectations of others as a
regulator of his/her behavior.
Recall easily available.
2. Ego – emerged from the ID as
a way to cope with conflicts
arising from the power
struggles. Recall difficult.
3. ID – purpose is to gain
pleasures, reduce tension.
Recall impossible.

21. Erik Erikson’s Epigenetic
Model of Development

22. Erik Erikson’s Theory of
Psychosocial Development
More similarity to Piaget than Freud. However, Erikson’s observations take place at many levels.