13AR1305 ARCHITECTURAL GRAPHICS -II Module – I Perspective drawing Leonardo’s window Perspective projection concepts. Vanishing points. Station points. Picture planes. Types of perspective- Single point perspective, Two point perspective. Perspective projection of simple objects, buildings, Interior perspectives, human figures. Landscapes etc in perspective, Sciography.

1. Since prehistoric times
mankind depicted three
dimensional ARCHITECTURAL natures GRAPHICS -II
on
University of Kerala
a flat surface. Module – I
Here are
7/10/2014
the drawings SAMBATH.RD
by a
Stone Age artist done
32,000 years ago. This
is the oldest art known
to man. It was
discovered in a cave
located in Southern
France.

2. 13AR1305 ARCHITECTURAL GRAPHICS -II Module – I
Perspective drawing
Leonardo’s window
Perspective projection concepts.
Vanishing points.
Station points.
Picture planes.
Types of perspective-
Single point perspective,
Two point perspective.
Perspective projection of simple objects,
buildings,
Interior perspectives, human figures.
Landscapes etc in perspective,
Sciography.

3. Figure 1
What are the main rules of perspective?
 The rules are quite simple and can be seen in our everyday experience.
 The objects closer to a viewer appear bigger than similar objects located further away.

4.  The objects on a foreground will partially or completely cover objects on the background if they
are aligned on the same ray (line) of view.
 The further away objects are, the less detailed they look and the less contrasting and saturated
their colors become.
History of drawing in perspective
 Since prehistoric times mankind depicted three dimensional natures on a flat surface. Here are
the drawings by a Stone Age artist done
32,000 years ago. This is the oldest art
known to man. It was discovered in a
cave located in Southern France.
 The cave wall murals portray various
animals using extraordinary expressive
drawing techniques. The ‘panel of horses’
has use of perspective, which shows
several animals on the same plane.
Similar perspective is applied for lions,
rhinos and other animals. The animals that
are closer to the viewer are bigger in scale
and partially cover the animal behind.
 Similar perspective can be found in ancient Egypt frescoes
and drawings. Human figures are arranged in planes and
the modern viewer has no are further away. In Egyptian
art, the difficulties to understand which figures are closer
and which scale of figures does not always follow the rules
of perspective as characters’ size often corresponds to their
social hierarchy.
 Egyptians artists often arranged drawing compositions in
horizontal bands, which gave clear representation of different fields of view – foreground, middle-ground,
and background.

Figure 4
Figure 2
Figure 3

5.  This parallel perspective is used in combination with one-point perspective, where two edges of
his support will eventually meet in one point.
Figure 5
 Here’s the fresco by Raphael “The Athens School”. The main vanishing point of this composition is
located on the hand of Plato; however, the background has the lower horizon line. At the same
time, the group of people, surrounding Plato, is drawn in parallel perspective, while Plato’s
support has clear one-point perspective.
 One-, two-, and three-point perspective found a new life during the Renaissance time.
 Understanding rules of linear perspective helped fine artists depicting the world in a realistic
manner.
 However, many of them realized that following linear perspective to the point gives unwanted
distortions and often corrected such distortions by introducing multiple vanishing points on
various levels
These rules were known to fine artists for many centuries. Here’s what Leonardo da
Vinci said about perspective:
“There are three aspects to perspective.
 The first has to do with how the size of objects
seems to diminish according to distance:
 the second, the manner in which colors
change the farther away they are from the
eye;
 The third defines how objects ought to be
finished less carefully the farther away they
are.
 During the Renaissance, European artists began to study the model of nature more closely and to
paint with the goal of greater realism. They learned to create lifelike people and animals, and
they became skilled at creating the illusion of depth and distance on flat walls and canvases by
using the techniques of linear perspective.

Figure 6

6. 
Figure 7
 During the Renaissance in Italy, architects and artists
investigated the question of how to draw three dimensional
objects on flat surfaces.
 They began to think of a painting as an "open window"
through which the viewer sees the painted world.
 They also developed a system of mathematical rules
known as linear perspective to help painters achieve their
goal of realism.

To use linear perspective an artist must first imagine the
picture surface as an "open window" through which to see
the painted world.
 Straight lines are then drawn on the canvas to represent
the horizon and "visual rays" connecting the viewer's eye
to a point in the distance.

The horizon line runs across the canvas at the eye level
of the viewer. The horizon line is where the sky
appears to meet the ground.
Figure 8
Figure 9 .
In painting the Virgin of the Rocks,
Leonardo applied his understanding
of aerial perspective to create the
sense of mountains a great distance
away.

7.  Leonardo was fascinated by the atmosphere and by its effects on the colors and distinctness of
distant objects. Though other artists had already begun to create some of these effects in their
work, Leonardo was the first to make careful measurements and suggest rules for applying them
realistically in painting. He called the subject Aerial perspective.
In morning light Leonardo observed that distant objects such as mountains look bluer and less
distinct than nearby mountains. He also noted that the more distant the mountain, the more its
color approached that of the surrounding atmosphere.
 His experiments suggested that to correctly color objects at different distances, artists should do
as follows: Paint the nearest one its true color. Paint the one behind proportionately bluer, and
the one behind that bluer
 In this computer generated scene, the colors have been made the same for nearby and distant
objects as if there were no atmospheric effects
Perspective Projection
Captures a true three-dimensional view onto a two-dimensional plane.
What is Perspective Projection?
 Perspective projection is a form of pictorial drawing that gives the illusion of depth onto a flat
surface, very similar to that of viewing of the object through the human eye. In comparison to
other types of projection systems, for example orthographic and oblique, the spectator is viewing
the object from infinity. The projection rays radiate parallel to each other from the object back to
the spectator, compared to perspective projection where the projected rays radiate from the
object to a single point at a given distance from the object.

Figure 10

8. The Spectator
Figure 11 the spectator is the name given to the point in which the object is being viewed from.
Figure 12 the spectator in perspective projection shares many similar characteristics with
the human eye. An example of this would be cone of vision. In perspective projection the
object is viewed using one eye (a single point).
 The best way to obtain the distance for the spectator is to consider the object's location within the
cone of vision shown. People tend to see most clearly at the centre of their cone of vision, which
is represented by a centre line of vision. This line is the axis of our cone of vision, and generally
tends to be a horizontal line. The centre line of vision is perpendicular to the picture plane.

9. Horizon Line and Vanishing Points
Figure 13
Horizon line is the intersection of the ground plane and a plane in accordance to the
spectator’s line of vision.
Vanishing points.
 Vanishing points are points that lines
and/or surfaces vanish back to in
perspective projection. The main
principle with vanishing points is that
all lines parallel to one or another
and receding from the spectator will
have their own vanishing point on the
Figure 14
 Horizon line. The vanishing points are always
located on the horizon line because the horizon
Figure 15

10. line is the vanishing line of the Earth. Therefore the horizon line can consist of an
infinite number of vanishing points.
The Ground Line
 This is a straight line on the picture plane that represents the ground. It is important to note that
the ground line represents a plane that continues onto the horizon line.
Types of perspective
 One Point Perspective.
 Two point perspective.
Rules of One Point Perspective
 Horizontal lines parallel to the picture plane and
remain horizontal.
 Vertical lines remain vertical.
Figure 17
 The orthogonal lines formed from the corners diverge to the vanishing point.
 The vanishing point is located in front of the spectator.
How to draw in One Point Perspective
 First draw the object. Plan the position of the picture plane and the position of the spectator.
 Establish a ground line and the horizon line the same height as the spectator.
 Extend lines down from the corner of your plan view to the ground line thus establishing the
given object's position.
Figure 16

11.  Connect back the corners of the object to the vanishing point to define its position and shape.
Figure 18
Conditions for Two Point Perspective
 For Two Point perspective the object is orientated so that the vertical edges are parallel to the
picture plane and all other edges are inclined away from the spectator thus the receding lines
converge on two separate vanishing points.
Rules of Two Point Perspective.
 To find the vanishing points, lines of sight are drawn parallel to the surfaces of the
object until they cross the picture plane.
 The object to be viewed is rotated so that all the sides are at an angle to the picture
plane.
 All vertical lines retract back to their respective vanishing points
 Horizontal lines remain horizontal
How to draw in Two Point Perspective
 Draw the object plan and establish the orientation of the picture plane in relation to the
spectator.
 Establish the ground line and horizon line. Draw lines parallel to the side of the object
until they strike the picture plane to establish you're VP's.
 Join the corner points of the object in plan to the spectator and where the light rays
intersect the picture plane, and then project these points to the ground line.
 Recede the established edge position in the perspective drawing to their respective
vanishing points as shown in the video to the right.
What is Vertical line of measures or measuring line perspective?
Measure line perspective is a mathematical system of making objects relate to
each other proportionately. A perspective grid is made to relate to the
ground plan; using the grid allows greater ease in measuring distances which

12. may not correspond to any other scale when the method of foreshortening is
put in place. This type of perspective allows a person to transform an in-scale
ground plan into a perspective drawing.
Sciography?
Sciography is a branch of science of the perspective dealing with the projection of shadows, or
delineation of an object in perspective with its gradations of light and shade. One of the major
professional fields that use this technique is the architectural field. In architecture it is defined as a study
of shades and shadows cast
by simple architectural forms
on plane surfaces.
In general sciography the light
source is imagined as the sun
inclined at 45 degrees to both
vertical plane and horizontal
plane coming from left hand
side. The resultant shadow is
then drawn.
Glossary
Depths of receding surfaces
The depth of a receding surface refers to the z-axis of an object, as opposed to the
object’s x-axis or y-axis, (i ts width and height) . There are two main ways to discover the
depth of a receding surface. One way i s to use diagonal lines with a scale that recedes.
The second way is through the use of a scale on the base-line or parallel to i t. The first
method is of ten used to f ree-hand sketch things such as a foreshortened row of fence
posts.
Accelerated perspective
An intentional exaggeration of perspective of ten in a stage setting to permit a shallower
than appears actual stage depth.
Aerial perspective, atmospheric perspective
Of ten employed in painting, aerial perspective is the way in which an illusion of space and
depth is created through the use of atmospheric techniques. These techniques include
making forms in the background region wi th less contrast and sof ter edges than those in

13. the forefront of the picture plane. Of ten in atmospheric perspective there exists a change
f rom warmer hues to cool hues. In general, warmer colors come forward, and cooler
colors recede (advancing and retreating color). The atmospheric effect in a picture i s due
to the degree of moisture suspended in the air. Chinese painters especially employ
atmospheric perspective by using clouds or inserting mists in various value tones among
the middle areas of the picture plane and introducing fainter tones in the far distance.
Aerial perspective is of ten used together with linear perspective to create a strong sense
of spatial depth in the picture.
Aerial View
Also known as a bird’s eye view. This is the viewpoint seen at a high elevation. It
involves the vanishing point/s and horizon line being positioned on the upper portion of an
image. It is usually used in reference to a landscape or a ci tyscape. (Aerial view is not
the same thing as aerial perspective.)
All-over composition
A style of painting in which the entire surface of the piece is worked on in a more or less
uniform way, and the normal way of treating composition (with the picture having a
center, top or bottom) is not considered. The term was originally used in response to
Jackson Pollock's drip paintings. Later the term was used to refer to other pieces that
ref rain f rom the usual compositional approaches. In this way, the Impressionists
"liberated" artists f rom a decided center of interest - and not necessarily to one of no
composition - but rather to mul tiple or all-over points in the picture plane.
Angular perspective
Angular perspective is a type of linear perspective. All categories of linear perspective
include a horizon line and a stationary point ( the posi tion of the observer). In two-point
perspective, there exist two points from which an object’s lines radiate f rom; the sides of
the object vanish to one of two vanishing points on the horizon line. An object’s vertical
lines do not relate to the perspective rules of the horizontal lines. By changing the
vanishing points of the object, one can make increase or decrease the size of the
object. Angular perspective is the same as two-point perspective.
Axis
An axi s is a line that runs straight through something in order to show the direction and
movement of something. The line is purely conceptual – i t is of ten used as a helpful tool
for artists.
Center vanishing Points CVP
The point located on the horizon line that connects to the observation point. Usually i t is
at this point where the horizon line and centerline intersect each other. It is also at this
point where lines parallel to the picture plane disappear.
Centerline CL
A line, marked as "CL," that is drawn down the middle of a draf ting.
Cone of vision
The cone of vision is the visual region displayed by a drawing that relates to
a person’s normal vision without his/her peripheral vision. In a nutshell, the
cone of vision is the area of sight – or the angle of sight. For example, if a
person wanted to see the entire theatre stage, usually a cone of vision
is 60 degrees is required, so a person would need to sit far enough back to
achieve this degree of vision.
Convergence
Convergence in a drawing or painting refers to linear perspective. In linear perspective,
all lines that are parallel converge together as they run along to a point at a person’s eye
level (also known as the horizon line) in the picture place. This phenomenon is known as
“convergence.”
Curvilinear perspective

14. A perspective view in which straight lines appear to be curved. Close-up and wide angle
views commonly relate to the perspective.
Diminution
Diminution occurs in linear perspective; i t involves objects becoming smaller and smaller
as the space between the viewer and the object increases.
Eye Level
Eye level refers to the height a viewer’s eyes are positioned in relation to the ground.
There are various eye levels.
Foreshortening
An illusion of the eye, creating the ef fect that objects become smaller the further away
they are, and become larger the closer they are to the viewer. Foreshortening is used in
drawing in order to create a sense of depth and make objects appear to exist spatially to
each other.
Format
Format relates to the size and shape of a painting. If i t is a rectangle, the orientation
can be longer in the vertical dimension (portrait) - or longer in the horizontal
(landscape). Format decisions by the artist on both size and shape of the
art surface will impact the composi tion strategy and the effects.
Ground line
The ground line is the location that a picture plane is posi tioned on the ground.
Horizon Line
The horizon line is a line drawn across a picture. It is essential for a picture
to have a horizon line if a person wishes to communicate f rom what
perspective a person is observing the picture (from above an object, below an
object…etc) . It is not necessary to include the horizon line in the picture.
However, it is important to include a ‘virtual’ horizon line in order to make a
picture follow correct perspective. The horizon line is always one’s eye level.
If one draws a line perpendicular to the ground outwardly f rom one’s eye
level, this is what is considered the horizon line.
Linear Perspective
Linear Perspective relates to the mathematical system of creating objects that are created
three-dimensionally on a two-dimensional surface. It is called “linear” perspective
because objects and figures and space are re-created in a realistic manner through the use
of intersecting lines drawn horizontally and vertically. There are three types of linear
perspective. They include one point perspective, two-point perspective, and three-point
perspective. All of the perspectives include a horizon line and a stationary point ( the
position of the observer). In one point perspective, there is one point that all lines radiate
f rom. In two-point perspective, there exist two points f rom which an object’s lines radiate
f rom; the sides of the object vanish to one of two vani shing points on the horizon line. An
object’s vertical lines do not relate to the perspective rules of the horizontal lines. By

15. changing the vanishing points of the object, one can make increase or decrease the size of
the object. In three-point perspective there are also two vanishing points somewhere on
the horizon; however, unlike two-point perspective, there also exists a vanishing point
above or below the horizon line that the vertical lines di sappear to.
Measure line perspective
Measure line perspective is a mathematical system of making objects relate to each other
proportionately. A perspective grid is made to relate to the ground plan; using the grid
allows greater ease in measuring distances which may not correspond to any other scale
when the method of foreshortening is put in place. This type of perspective allows a
person to transform an in-scale ground plan into a perspective.
Oblique perspective
Oblique perspective is a type of linear perspective. All categories of linear
perspective include a horizon line and a stationary point ( the position of the
observer). In oblique perspective there are also two vanishing points
somewhere on the horizon; however, unlike two-point perspective, there also
exists a vanishing point above or below the horizon line that the vertical lines
disappear to. Oblique perspective is the same as three-point perspective.
Observation point OP
An observation point (OP) i s the single point from which a perspective drawing is looked
f rom. Imagine a ray of light radiating f rom a man's eye upon the scene in f ront of him -
his eye is the observation point. Of ten the observation point is located on the
centerline.
One point perspective
One-point perspective is a type of linear perspective. All categories of linear
perspective include a horizon line and a stationary point ( the position of the
observer). In one-point perspective, only one vanishing point exists; lines
radiate outwardly from this point, and perpendicular lines meet at this point.
One-point perspective is the same as parallel perspective.
Orthogonal lines
Perspective lines that point to the vanishing point; orthogonal lines are perpendi cular to
one another.
Parallel lines
Parallel Lines are lines that run in the same direction; they never touch each
other because the distance running between them is always the same. In
perspective drawing, lines that are parallel converge in the distance at a
vanishing point.
Parallel perspective
Parallel perspective is a type of linear perspective. All categories of linear perspective
include a horizon line and a stationary point ( the position of the observer). In one-point
perspective, only one vanishing point exists; lines radiate outwardly from this point, and
perpendicular lines meet at this point. Parallel perspective is the same as one-point
perspective.
Perpendicular lines
Perpendicular lines are straight lines that meet at right angles. The letter "L" is an
example of perpendicular lines.
Perspective grid
A grid created mathematically; people use i t as a measuring guide in order to make in-scale
perspective drawings.
Picture plane
A picture plane is the two-dimensional surface upon which a painting/drawing is created.
A window can be understood as a picture plane as one looks out to the scene beyond it.
Point of View

16. A point of view in drawing is simply what position an observer is in relation to
the objects in a picture. The point of view is determined by where a viewer is
stationed in relation to everything else he sees. For example, if one has a
birds-eye view, one will see objects beneath him. If one has a normal view,
objects will appear how he normally sees them. If one has a worms-eye view,
objects will appear much larger than normal.
Receding parallel lines
Receding parallel lines are lines parallel to each other that gradually move
away from the viewer. There are a number of rules that receding parallel lines
follow in nature. First, all lines in nature that are parallel to each other
appear to converge at the same point as they recede from the viewer.
Second, all level lines that recede in nature appear to converge on the
horizon. Thirdly, inclining parallel lines in nature that recede appear to
converge at a point immediately over the point they would have converged IF
they had been level lines. Fourthly, parallel lines in nature that recede when
inclined downward appear to meet at a point immediately beneath the point
they would have converged had they been level lines.
Relative Scale
Relative scale is a method used to create and determine the spatial position of
a f igure or object in 3D picture plane; objects or figures that are more distant
are drawn smaller in size than those objects or f igures that are closer to the
viewer. And the objects or f igures that are closer are drawn bigger. In this
way, the relative size of an object/figure creates the illusion of space on a f lat
2D picture plane.
Scale (proportion)
Scale in drawing refers to the proportion or ratio that def ines the size
relationships. Models, architectural plans, maps and paintings/drawings all
use scale to create the illusion of correct size relationships between objects
and f igures.
Shallow Space
Shallow space refers to a 2D flat space that may have width and density, but contains only
a limited amount of depth. For example, a picket fence is an example of an object that
demonstrates shallow space because of its lack of depth.
Sot to in su
In Italian this means "f rom below upwards." Used in reference to a ceiling painting
wherein the people, f igures, and scenes are depicted foresho rtened so that they appear to
be suspended in space - and not contained within the f lat structure of the picture plane.
Station Point
A station point is used in linear perspective as a stationary point from which a viewer i s
related to the object/figure being rendered. It can be thought of as the point of reference
f rom which all things in the artwork can be related to. The station point may be very high
or very low. High = bird's-eye-view. Low = worm's eye view. It is important to
determine the correct station point when starting a piece of work, because the station
point has a key role in determining how the viewer understands one’s composi tion and
relates to the subject matter. It may also be referred to as "vantage point".
Three point perspective
Three-point perspective is a type of linear perspective. All categories of linear
perspectives include a hori zon line and a stationary point ( the posi tion of the observer). In
three-point perspective there are also two vanishing points somewhere on the horizon;
however, unlike two-point perspective, there also exi sts a vanishing point above or below
the horizon line that the vertical lines disappear to. Three-point perspective is the same
as oblique perspective.
Two point perspective
Two-point perspective is a type of linear perspective. All categories of linear perspective
include a horizon line and a stationary point ( the posi tion of the observer). In two-point
perspective, there exist two points from which an object’s lines radiate f rom; the sides of
the object vanish to one of two vanishing points on the horizon line. An object’s vertical
lines do not relate to the perspective rules of the horizontal lines. By changing the

17. vanishing points of the object, one can make increase or decrease the size of the
object. Two-point perspective is the same as angular perspective.
Value
Artists' term for scaling of a composition's lightness with degrees of gray between
endpoints of black and whi te. Colors can also be assessed in the same way for value.
Darker relates to "lower" in values. In science, value is "lightness".
Vanishing Point
A point that receding parallel lines appear to converge to. It is used in linear perspective
in relation to a stationary point ( the placement of the observer). Objects seem to
disappear at the vanishing point.
Vantage point
A vantage point is used in linear perspective as a stationary point f rom which a viewer is
related to the object/figure being rendered. It can be thought of as the point of reference
f rom which all things in the artwork can be related to. The vantage point may be very
high or very low. High = bird's-eye-view. Low = worm's eye view. It is important to
determine the correct station point when starting a piece of work, because the vantage
point has a key role in determining how the viewer understands one’s composi tion and
relates to the subject matter. It may also be referred to as "station point".
Worm's-eye view
A drawing or painting scene that is seen as though the observer is looking up from a
position below i t. Properly used i t relies on the oblique perspective. All vertical lines will
converge upward and be parallel to the picture plane.
Zero point perspective
Zero-point perspective is a type of linear perspective. All of types of linear perspectives
include a horizon line and a stationary point ( the position of the observer). In zero-point
perspective, no vanishing points exist; as a result, the image contains no depth.
Zones of recession
The area of a picture’s surface is apportioned to a foreground, a middle distance, and a
background when constructing spatial depth. Variations and hazing of these respective
zones influence degree of reduction and severity of contrast in the linear perspective.
------ ------------ ------------- ------------ ---…----------- ------------ ------------- ----------
“Best wishes to my all students. May god shower his
bless on my kids to achieve their goals.”
-Sambath.
Presented by
Sambath RD
MFA (Broadcast Journalism and Video Production),
Master in Media Business Management
UGC.NET in Visual Arts.
Asst. Professor.
Architectural Graphics
Department of Architecture
T.K.M COLLEGE OF ENGINNERING.