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Biothecnology.pptx

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Biotechnology is technology that utilizes biological systems, living organisms or parts of this to develop or create different products. Brewing and baking bread are examples of processes that fall within the concept of biotechnology (use of yeast (= living organism) to produce the desired product).

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 ‫کلمه‬ ‫بیوتکنولوژی‬ ( Biotechnology ) ‫از‬ ‫دو‬ ‫کلمه‬ bio ‫به‬ ‫معنی‬ ‫ارگانیسم‬ ( ‫زنده‬ ) ‫و‬ technology ‫به‬ ‫معنای‬ ‫یک‬ ‫روش‬ ‫علمی‬ ‫به‬ ‫منظور‬ ‫دستیابی‬ ‫به‬ ‫یک‬ ‫هدف‬ ‫علمی‬ ‫شکل‬ ‫گرفته‬ ‫است‬ .  ‫بیوتکنولوژی‬ ‫به‬ ‫طور‬ ‫کلی‬ ‫به‬ ‫‌ای‬ ‫ه‬‫مجموع‬ ‫از‬ ‫فناوریها‬ ‫اطالق‬ ‫‌شود‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ ‫که‬ ‫ارگانیسم‬ ‫های‬ ‫زنده‬ ‫یا‬ ‫بیولوژیکی‬ ،‫گیاه‬ ،‫حیوان‬ ‫میکروارگانیسم‬ ‫یا‬ ‫ترکیبات‬
‫گستردگی‬ ‌‫‌و‬ ‌‫‌‌آنرا‬ ‫ف‬‫‌‌و‌توصی‬ ‫ف‬‫‌تعری‬،‌ ‫ی‬‫‌‌بیوتکنولوژ‬ ‫ی‬‫‌‌کاربردها‬ ‫ع‬‫تنو‬ ‌‫‌‌و‌نیز‬ ‫ل‬‫‌‌مشک‬ ‫ی‬‫کم‬ ‌ ‫ع‬‫متنو‬ ‌‌ ‫ه‬‫ساخت‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫اس‬ . ‌‫تعریف‬ ‫بیوتکنولوژی‬  ‌ ‫ی‬‫‌ا‬ ‫ه‬‫مجموع‬ ‫از‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫فنو‬ ‫و‬ ‫روشها‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫ک‬ ‫در‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫آ‬ ‫از‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫‌ها‬ ‫م‬‫ارگانیس‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫زند‬ ‫یا‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫قسمت‬ ‫از‬ ‫آنها‬ ‫در‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫فرایندها‬ ،‫تولید‬ ‫تغییر‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫‌ساز‬ ‫ه‬‫بهین‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫گیاها‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫جانورا‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫استفاد‬ ‫‌شود‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ .  ‫کاربرد‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫تکنیکها‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫مهندس‬ ‌ ‫ک‬‫ژنتی‬ ‫در‬ ‫تولید‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫محصوال‬ ،‌ ‫ی‬‫کشاورز‬ ،‌ ‫ی‬‫صنعت‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫درمان‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ص‬‫تشخی‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫باکیفی‬ ‫باالتر‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫قیم‬ ‫ارزانتر‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ل‬‫محصو‬ ‫بیشتر‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫م‬‫ک‬ ‫خطرتر‬ .  ‌ ‫ه‬‫استفاد‬ ‫از‬ ‌ ‫ل‬‫سلو‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫زند‬ ‫یا‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫توانائیها‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫‌ها‬ ‫ل‬‫سلو‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫زند‬ ‫یا‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫اجزا‬ ‫آنها‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫فرآور‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ل‬‫انتقا‬ ‫آنها‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫‌صور‬ ‫ه‬‫ب‬ ‫تولید‬ ‫در‬ ‌ ‫س‬‫مقیا‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫انبو‬ .  ‌ ‫ی‬‫‌بردار‬ ‫ه‬‫بهر‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫تجار‬ ‫از‬ ‫‌ها‬ ‫م‬‫ارگانیس‬ ‫یا‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫اجزا‬ ‫آنها‬ .  ‫کاربرد‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫روشها‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫مهندس‬ ‌ ‫ک‬‫ژنتی‬ ‫در‬ ‫تولید‬ ‫یا‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫دستکار‬ ‫‌ها‬ ‫م‬‫میکروارگانیس‬ ‫‌ها‬ ‫م‬‫وارگانیس‬ .
 ‫ب‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫یوتکنولوژ‬ ‫همانند‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫زیس‬ ،‌ ‫ی‬‫شناس‬ ‌ ‫ک‬‫ژنتی‬ ‌ ‫ا‬‫ی‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫بیوشیم‬ ‌ ‫ک‬‫ی‬ ‌ ‫م‬‫عل‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫پای‬ ‫یا‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫کاربرد‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫نیس‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫ک‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫بتوا‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫محدود‬ ‫و‬ ‫قلمرو‬ ‫آنرا‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫بسادگ‬ ‌ ‫ف‬‫تعری‬ ‫کرد‬ . ‌ ‫ی‬‫بیوتکنولوژ‬ ‌ ‫ل‬‫شام‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫‌ا‬ ‫ه‬‫حوز‬ ‌ ‫ک‬‫مشتر‬ ‫از‬ ‌ ‫م‬‫علو‬ ‌ ‫ف‬‫مختل‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫اس‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫ک‬ ‫در‬ ‫اثر‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫همپوشان‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫تالق‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫ای‬ ‌ ‫م‬‫علو‬ ‫با‬ ‫یکدیگر‬ ‫بوجود‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫آمد‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫اس‬ .  ‌ ‫ل‬‫‌معاد‬ ‫ی‬‫بیوتکنولوژ‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫زیس‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫شناس‬ ،‌ ‫ی‬‫مولکول‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫مهندس‬ ،‌ ‫ک‬‫ژنتی‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫مهندس‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫شیم‬ ‫یا‬ ‌ ‫چ‬‫هی‬ ‌ ‫ک‬‫ی‬ ‫از‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫‌سنت‬ ‫م‬‫علو‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫مدر‬ ‫موجود‬ ‫‌؛‬ ‫ت‬‫نیس‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫بلک‬ ‫پیوند‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫میا‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫ای‬ ‌ ‫م‬‫علو‬ ‫در‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫جه‬ ‌ ‫ق‬‫تحق‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫بخشید‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫ب‬ ‫تولید‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫بهین‬ ‌ ‫ک‬‫ی‬ ‌ ‫ل‬‫محصو‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫حیات‬ ( ‌ ‫ی‬‫زیست‬ ) ‫یا‬ ‌ ‫م‬‫انجا‬ ‌ ‫ک‬‫ی‬ ‫فرآیند‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫زیست‬ ‫ب‬ ‫ا‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫‌نوی‬ ‫ی‬‫روشها‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ق‬‫دقی‬ ‫با‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫کارآئ‬ ‫بسیار‬ ‫باال‬ ‫‌باشد‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ .
 ‫سابقه‬ ‫به‬ ‫کارگیری‬ ‫میکروارگانیسم‬ ‫ها‬ ‫برای‬ ‫تولید‬ ‫مواد‬ ‫خوراکی‬ ‫مانند‬ ،‫سرکه‬ ‫ماست‬ ‫و‬ ‫پنیر‬ ‫به‬ ‫بیش‬ ‫از‬ 8 ‫هزار‬ ‫سال‬ ‫پیش‬ ‫‌گردد‬ ‫ی‬‫برم‬ .  ‫نقش‬ ‫میکروارگانیسم‬ ‫ها‬ ‫در‬ ‫تولید‬ ‫الکل‬ ‫و‬ ‫سرکه‬ ‫در‬ ‫سده‬ ‫پیش‬ ‫زمانی‬ ‫کشف‬ ‫شد‬ ‫که‬ ‫گروهی‬ ‫از‬ ‫بازرگانان‬ ‫فرانسوی‬ ‫در‬ ‫جست‬ ‫و‬ ‫جوی‬ ‫روشی‬ ‫بودند‬ ‫تا‬ ‫از‬ ‫ترش‬ ‫شدن‬ ‫شراب‬ ‫و‬ ‫آبجو‬ ‫هنگام‬ ‫جابه‬ ‫جایی‬ ‫آن‬ ‫ها‬ ‫با‬ ‫کشتی‬ ‫به‬ ‫نقاط‬ ‫دور‬ ‫جلوگیری‬ ‫کنند‬ .  ‫آنان‬ ‫از‬ ‫لویی‬ ‫پاستور‬ ‫درخواست‬ ‫کمک‬ ‫کردند‬ . ‫لویی‬
‫در‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫‌بند‬ ‫م‬‫تقسی‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫زمان‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫‌توا‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫س‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫دور‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫برا‬ ‌ ‫ل‬‫تکام‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫بیوتکنولوژ‬ ‌ ‫ل‬‫قائ‬ ‫شد‬ : ۱ ) ‫دوره‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫تاریخ‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫ک‬ ‫بشر‬ ‫با‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫استفاد‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫ناخودآگا‬ ‫از‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫فرآیندها‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫زیست‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫ب‬ ‫تولید‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫محصوال‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫تخمیر‬ ‫مانند‬ ،‌ ‫ن‬‫نا‬ ‌ ،‫لبنیات‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫ترشیجا‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫سرک‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫غیر‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫‌پرداخ‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ . ‫مصریها‬ ‫در‬ ‫چهار‬ ‫هزار‬ ‌ ‫ل‬‫سا‬ ‌ ‫ل‬‫قب‬ ‫با‬ ‌ ‫ک‬‫کم‬ ‫مخمر‬ ‫و‬ ‫خمیر‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫مای‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫نا‬ ‫‌پختند‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ . ‫در‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫ای‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫دورا‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫فرآیندها‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫ساد‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫اولی‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫بیوتکنولوژ‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫‌ویژ‬ ‫ه‬‫ب‬ ‫تخمیر‬ ‌ ‫ط‬‫توس‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫انسا‬ ‫بکار‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫گرفت‬ ‫‌شد‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ . ۲ ) ‌ ‫ه‬‫دور‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫اولی‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫قر‬ ‫حاضر‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫ک‬ ‫با‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫استفاد‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫آگاهان‬ ‫از‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫‌ها‬ ‫ک‬‫تکنی‬ ‫تخمیر‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫کش‬ ‫‌ها‬ ‫م‬‫میکروارگانیس‬ ‫در‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫‌ها‬ ‫ط‬‫محی‬ ‌ ‫ب‬‫مناس‬ ‫و‬ ‌ ‫متعاقبا‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫استفاد‬ ‫از‬ ‫فرمانتورها‬ ‫در‬ ‫تولید‬ ،‫‌بیوتیکها‬ ‫ی‬‫آنت‬ ،‫آنزیمها‬ ‫اجزای‬ ‫مواد‬ ،‌ ‫ی‬‫غذای‬ ‫مواد‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫شیمیای‬ ‌ ‫ی‬‫آل‬ ‫و‬ ‫سایر‬ ،‌ ‫ت‬‫ترکیبا‬ ‫بشر‬ ‌ ‫ه‬‫ب‬ ‌ ‫ش‬‫گستر‬ ‌ ‫ن‬‫ای‬ ‌ ‫م‬‫عل‬ ‌ ‫ت‬‫مبادر‬ ‫ورزید‬ .
 ‫کاربردهای‬ ‫سنتی‬ ‫بیوتکنولوژی‬ ‫شامل‬ ‫اصالح‬ ‫نباتات‬ ‫و‬ ،‫دام‬ ‫تهیه‬ ،‫نان‬ ‫ماست‬ ‫و‬ ‫پنیر‬ ‫بوده‬ ‫‌است‬ ‫و‬ ‫پس‬ ‫از‬ ‫آن‬ ‫تولید‬ ‫پادزیستها‬ ( ‫آنتی‬ ‫‌ها‬ ‫ک‬‫بیوتی‬ ) ، ‫انسولین‬ ‫انسانی‬ ‫و‬ ‫‌اکنون‬ ‫م‬‫ه‬ ‫با‬ ‫پیدایش‬ ‫فناوری‬ DNA ‫نوترکیب‬ ، ‫دستکاری‬ ‫ژنها‬ ‫و‬ ‫انتقال‬ ‫ژن‬ ‫از‬ ‫یک‬ ‫موجود‬ ‫زنده‬ ‫به‬ ‫دیگری‬ ‫یا‬ ‫به‬ ‫عبارت‬ ‫دیگر‬ ‫مهندسی‬ ‫ژنتیک‬ ، ‫ظرفیت‬ ‫‌گیری‬ ‫ه‬‫بهر‬ ‫از‬ ‫این‬ ‫فناوری‬ ‫به‬ ‫گونه‬ ‫‌ای‬ ‫ه‬‫فزایند‬ ‫افزایش‬ ‫‌است‬ ‫ه‬‫یافت‬ .  ‫در‬ ‫حال‬ ‫حاضر‬ ‫با‬ ‫توجه‬ ‫به‬ ‫افزایش‬ ‫‌رویه‬ ‫ی‬‫ب‬ ‫جمعیت‬ ‫و‬ ‫نیاز‬ ‫به‬ ‫تأمین‬ ‫مواد‬ ‫غذایی‬ ‫این‬ ‫جمعیت‬ ‫رو‬ ‫به‬ ،‫تزاید‬ ‫بیوتکنولوژی‬ ‫کشاورزی‬
 Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)  Transgene  Transgenic
(1 ‌‫تولید‌گیاهان‌مقاوم‬ ‌‫در‌برابر‌حشرات‌و‬ ‫آفات‬ ‌‫کاربرد‌باکتری‬ Bacillus thuringiensis
 ‫سلول‬ ‫های‬ midgut ‫شروع‬ ‫به‬ ‫فلج‬ ‫شدن‬ ‫می‬ ‫کنند‬ ‫و‬ ‫عمل‬ ‫هاضمه‬ ‫انجام‬ ‫نمی‬ ‫شود‬ ‫و‬ ‫در‬ ‫نتیجه‬ ‫حشرات‬ ‫از‬ ‫گرسنگی‬ ‫می‬ ‫میرند‬ .  ‫مکانیسم‬ ‫عملکرد‬ ‫توکسین‬ ‫ها‬ ‫شامل‬ ‫حل‬ ‫شدن‬ ‫پروتئین‬ ‫های‬ ‫کریستالی‬ ‫در‬ ‫آلکالین‬ ‫معده‬ ‫است‬ ‫و‬ ‫بعد‬ ‫از‬ ‫توکسین‬ ‫فعال‬ ‫شده‬ ‫و‬ ‫به‬ ‫گیرنده‬ ‫های‬ ‫روی‬ ‫غشای‬ ‫سلولی‬ ‫اپیتلیوم‬ ‫معده‬ ‫باند‬ ‫می‬ ‫شود‬ .   ‫در‬ ‫ادامه‬ ‫توکسین‬ ‫سوراخهایی‬ ‫در‬ ‫سلول‬ ‫اپی‬ ‫تلیالی‬ ‫غشا‬ ‫ایجاد‬ ‫می‬ ‫کند‬ ‫که‬ ‫بطور‬ ‫کلی‬ ‫تعادل‬ ‫اسمتیک‬ ‫سلولی‬ ‫را‬ ‫به‬ ‫هم‬ ‫می‬ ‫ریزد‬ ‫وسلول‬ ‫از‬ ‫هم‬ ‫گسیخته‬ ‫شده‬ ‫ومی‬ ‫میرد‬ .
 ‌‫تخریب‌دیوارزه‌سلولی‌در‌قارچها‌به‌وسیله‬ ‌‫کیتیناز‌و‬ 1 - 3 ‌‫گلوکانازها‌که‌در‌حقیقت‬ ‌‫باعث‌تخریب‌پلی‌ساکاریدها‌در‌دیواره‬ ‫سلولی‌در‌قارچ‌ها‌می‌شوند‬ . ‫اسیدهای‬ ‫آمینه‬ ،‫تریپتوفان‬ ‫فنیل‬ ‫آالنین‬ ‫و‬ ‫تیروزین‬ ‫در‬ ‫مسیر‬ ‫شیکمیک‬ ‫اسید‬ ‫تولید‬ ‫می‬ ‫شوند‬ . ‫این‬ ‫مسیر‬ ‫در‬ ‫گیاهان‬ ‫و‬ ‫بسیاری‬ ‫از‬ ‫میکروارگانیزم‬ ‫ها‬ ‫وجود‬ ‫دارد‬ ‫اما‬ ‫در‬ ‫جانوران‬ ‫وجود‬ ‫نداشته‬ ‫و‬ ‫این‬ ‫موجودات‬ ‫اسیدآمینه‬ ‫های‬ ‫آروماتیک‬ ‫مورد‬ ‫نیاز‬ ‫خود‬ ‫را‬ ‫از‬ ‫طریق‬ ‫جیره‬ ‫غذایی‬ ‫دریافت‬ ‫می‬ ‫کنند‬ . ‫به‬ ‫طور‬ ،‫عکس‬ ‫گیاهان‬ ‫برای‬ ‫بقاء‬ ‫و‬ ‫تولید‬ ‫مثل‬ ‫باید‬ ‫این‬ ‫اسیدهای‬ ‫آمینه‬ ‫ضروری‬ ‫را‬ ‫تولید‬ ‫کنند‬ .
 ‌‫از‌طریق‌بیوتکنولوژی‬ ‌،‫گیاهان‌مقاوم‌به‌شوری‬ ‌‫‌گرما‌و‌سرما‌تولید‬،‫خشکی‬ ‫شده‌اند‬ . ‌‫مراحل‌و‌روشهای‬ ‫تولید‬ GMO
‫جداسازی‬ ‫ژن‬ ‫و‬ ‫کلون‬ ‫کردن‬
‫‌های‬ ‫م‬‫آنزی‬ ‫برشی‬ ، ‫ابزارهای‬ ‫مهمی‬ ‫در‬ ‫تحقیقات‬ ‫ژنومیک‬ ‫هستند‬ . ‫آنها‬ ‫با‬ ‫قطع‬ ‫کردن‬ DNA ‫در‬ ‫یک‬ ‫مکان‬ ،‫مشخص‬ ‫فضایی‬ ‫را‬ ‫بوجود‬ ‫‌آورند‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ ‫که‬ ‫در‬ ‫آن‬ DNA ‫خارجی‬ ‫‌تواند‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ ‫با‬ ‫اهداف‬ ‫ویرایش‬ ‫ژن‬ ‫به‬ ‫آنها‬ ‫الحاق‬ ‫شود‬ . ‫این‬ ‫آنزیمها‬ ‫منشأ‬ ‫باکتریایی‬ ‫دارند‬ ‫و‬ ‫یک‬ ‫وسیله‬ ‫دفاعی‬ ‫در‬ ‫برابر‬ ‫حمله‬ ‫فاژها‬ ‫می‬ ‫باشند‬ . ‫در‬ ‫واقع‬ ‫باکتری‬ ‫از‬ ‫این‬ ‫آنزیمها‬ ‫استفاده‬ ‫می‬ ‫کند‬ ‫تا‬ ‫از‬ ‫ژنوم‬ ‫خود‬ ‫در‬ ‫برابر‬ ‫حمله‬ ‫فاژها‬ ‫محافظت‬ ‫کند‬ .
‫نحوه‬ ‫نامگذاری‬ ‫آنزیمهای‬ ‫محدود‬ ‫کننده‬ : ‫در‬ ‫نامگذاری‬ ‫آنزیمهای‬ ‫محدود‬ ‫کننده‬ ‫سه‬ ‫حرف‬ ‫اول‬ ‫نشان‬ ‫دهنده‬ ‫منبع‬ ‫حرف‬، ‫دوم‬ ‫سوش‬ ‫باکتری‬ ‫و‬ ‫عدد‬ ‫رومی‬ ‫ترتیب‬ ‫کشف‬ ‫و‬ ‫شناسایی‬ ‫آنزیم‬ ‫را‬ ‫نشان‬ ‫می‬ ‫دهد‬ . ‫برای‬ ‫مثال‬ ‫در‬ EcoR I ‫سه‬ ‫حرف‬ ‫اول‬ Eco ‫معرف‬ ‫منبع‬ ‫اشریشیا‬ ‫کلی‬ E.coli) ) ، ‫و‬ R ‫معرف‬ ‫سوش‬ ‫آن‬ ‫و‬ ‫عدد‬ I ‫بیانگر‬ ‫آن‬ ‫است‬ ‫که‬ ‫این‬ ‫آنزیم‬ ‫اولین‬ ‫آنزیم‬ ‫شناسایی‬ ‫شده‬ ‫در‬ Ecoli ‫است‬ .
‫انواع‬ ‫برشهای‬ ‫ایجاد‬ ‫شده‬ ‫توسط‬ ‫آنزیمهای‬ ‫محدود‬ ‫کننده‬ : ‫این‬ ‫آنزیمها‬ DNA ‫را‬ ‫در‬ ‫یک‬ ‫موقعیت‬ ‫داخلی‬ ‫برش‬ ‫می‬ ‫زنند‬ ‫و‬ ‫بنابراین‬ ‫جزو‬ ‫آندونوکلئازها‬ ‫به‬ ‫شمار‬ ‫می‬ ‫آیند‬ ‫سک‬ ‫ا‬ ‫نسهای‬ ‫هدف‬ ‫آنها‬ ‫بر‬ ‫روی‬ ‫مولکول‬ DNA ‫عموما‬ " ‫از‬ 4 ‫تا‬ 6 ‫جفت‬ ‫نوکلئوتید‬ ‫به‬ ‫صورت‬ ‫تکرار‬ ‫معکوس‬ ‫یا‬ ‫پالیندرومیک‬ ‫تشکیل‬ ‫شده‬ ‫است‬ . ‫پالیندروم‬ ‫در‬ ‫زبان‬ ‫یونانی‬ ‫به‬ ‫کلمه‬ ‫یا‬ ‫عبارتی‬ ‫گفته‬ ‫می‬ ‫شود‬ ‫که‬ ‫از‬ ‫چپ‬ ‫به‬ ‫راست‬ ‫یا‬ ‫از‬ ‫راست‬ ‫به‬ ‫چپ‬ ‫یکسان‬ ‫باشد‬ . ‫جایگاه‬ ‫تشخیص‬ ‫آنزیمهای‬ ‫محدود‬ ‫کننده‬ ‫نیز‬ ‫از‬ ' 5 ‫به‬ ' 3 ‫یا‬ ‫از‬ ' 3 ‫به‬ ' 5 ‫در‬ ‫هر‬ ‫دو‬ ‫رشته‬ DNA ‫توالی‬ ‫یکسانی‬ ‫دارد‬ . 5' ....GAATTC....3' 3' ....CTTAAG....5' ‫تاکنون‬ ‫حدود‬ 200 ‫نوع‬ ‫آنزیم‬ ‫محدود‬ ‫کننده‬ ‫شناسایی‬ ‫شده‬ ‫است‬ ‫که‬ ‫به‬ ‫طور‬ ‫کلی‬ ‫دو‬ ‫نوع‬ ‫برش‬ ‫را‬ ‫ایجاد‬ ‫می‬ ‫کنند‬ ‫و‬ ‫منجر‬ ‫به‬ ‫تشکیل‬ ‫قطعات‬ ‫مختلف‬ DNA ‫می‬ ‫گردند‬ .
‫بسیاری‬ ‫از‬ ‫‌های‬ ‫ز‬‫اندونکلئا‬ ‫محدود‬ ‫کننده‬ ‫برش‬ ‫‌ای‬ ‫ه‬‫ساد‬ ‫را‬ ‫در‬ ‫میان‬ ‫جایگاه‬ ‫شناسایی‬ ‫بر‬ ‫روی‬ DNA ‫دو‬ ‫‌ای‬ ‫ه‬‫رشت‬ ‫ایجاد‬ ‫‌کنند‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ ‫و‬ ‫‌ی‬ ‫ه‬‫نتیج‬ ‫آن‬ ‫ایجاد‬ ‫دو‬ « ‫انتهای‬ ‫صاف‬ » ‫یا‬ blunt end ‫‌باشد‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ . ‫از‬ ‫جمله‬ ‫این‬ ‫‌ها‬ ‫م‬‫آنزی‬ ‫‌توان‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ ‫به‬ AluI ‫اشاره‬ ‫کرد‬ . ‫در‬ « ‫انتهای‬ ‫چسبنده‬ » ‫یا‬ stiky end ، ‫در‬ ‫انتهای‬ ‫هر‬ ‫‌ی‬ ‫ه‬‫قطع‬ ‫حاصل‬ ‫از‬ ،‫برش‬ 2 ‫تا‬ 4 ‫نوکلئوتید‬ ‫تک‬ ‫‌ای‬ ‫ه‬‫رشت‬ ‫و‬ ‫بدون‬ ‫مکمل‬ ‫باقی‬ ‫‌مانند‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ ‫و‬ ‫از‬ ‫آنجا‬ ‫که‬ ‫‌تواند‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ ‫با‬ ‫‌ی‬ ‫ه‬‫قطع‬ ‫مکمل‬ ‫خود‬ ‫جفت‬ ‫شود‬ ‫به‬ ‫آن‬ ‫انتهای‬ ‫چسبنده‬ ‫‌گویند‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ . ‫از‬ ‫جمله‬ ‫‌هایی‬ ‫م‬‫آنزی‬ ‫که‬ ‫انتهای‬ ‫چسبنده‬ ‫ایجاد‬ ‫‌کند‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ ‫‌توان‬ ‫ی‬‫م‬ EcoRI ‫را‬ ‫نام‬ ‫برد‬ .
‫گروه‬ ‫از‬ ‫هستند‬ ‫انزیمهای‬ ‫اگزونوکلئازها‬ ‫نوکلئازها‬ ‫شکستن‬ ‫برای‬ ‫نوکلیوتیدها‬ ‫بین‬ ‫استر‬ ‫دی‬ ‫فسفو‬ ‫پیوند‬ ‫در‬ ‫ای‬ ‫ان‬ ‫دی‬ ‫رشته‬ ‫دو‬ . ‫از‬ ‫و‬ ‫جدا‬ ‫را‬ ‫نوکلوتیدها‬ ‫ای‬ ‫ان‬ ‫دی‬ ‫رشته‬ ‫انتهای‬ ‫کنند‬ ‫می‬ . ‫اندونوکلئازها‬ ‫شکستن‬ ‫برای‬ ‫نوکلئازها‬ ‫گروه‬ ‫از‬ ‫هستند‬ ‫انزیمهای‬ ‫ان‬ ‫دی‬ ‫رشته‬ ‫دو‬ ‫در‬ ‫نوکلیوتیدها‬ ‫بین‬ ‫استر‬ ‫دی‬ ‫فسفو‬ ‫پیوند‬ ‫که‬ ‫ای‬ ‫دهند‬ ‫می‬ ‫انجام‬ ‫رشته‬ ‫وسط‬ ‫در‬ ‫را‬ ‫برش‬ .
‫آنزیم‬ S1 Nuclease : ‫این‬ ‫آنزیم‬ ‫پلی‬ ‫نوکلئو‬ ‫تید‬ ‫تک‬ ‫رشته‬ ‫ای‬ ‫را‬ ‫هیدرولیز‬ ‫میکند‬ .
‫آنزیم‬ DNA ligase : ‫این‬ ‫آنزیم‬ ‫از‬ ‫باکتری‬ E.coli ‫استخراج‬ ‫می‬ ‫شود‬ ‫وکوفاکتور‬ ‫آن‬ NAD ‫است‬ ‫و‬ ‫اکثرا‬ " ‫اتصال‬ ‫بین‬ ‫دو‬ DNA ‫که‬ ‫برش‬ ‫انتهایی‬ ‫انها‬ ‫بصورت‬ Cohesive ‫باشد‬ ‫را‬ ‫بر‬ ‫قرار‬ ‫میکند‬ ‫و‬ ‫عده‬ ‫ای‬ ‫معتقدند‬ ‫که‬ ‫این‬ ‫آنزیم‬ ‫در‬ ‫فر‬ ‫قرار‬ ‫کردن‬ ‫اتصال‬ ‫بین‬ ‫دو‬ DNA ‫که‬ ‫برش‬ ‫انتهایی‬ ‫آنها‬ ‫بصورت‬ blunt ‫باشد‬ ‫مشکل‬ ‫خواهد‬ ‫داشت‬ .
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Biothecnology.pptx